Contributions from: Ms. Kenosi.
Abstract
Working as a lecturer Special Education in Botswana I visited educational projects for pupils with Special Educational Needs (SEN) in Botswana, Kenya, Nigeria, Zimbabwe. These projects have poor or non-existent records, not to speak about evaluated. This lack of written and scientific processing appears to be a specific African characteristic of projects catering for children with SEN in Africa. Hence African projects hardly play a role in the debate on the education of pupils with SEN in Africa, while the African context is barely taken in consideration when discussing this type of education in Africa. Based upon meetings with African colleagues, African literature and my own experiences I take the position that no debate on the education of pupils with SEN in Africa can be held without having in mind the following African characteristics:
1. Developments in the education op pupils with SEN in Africa.
2. The education of pupils with SEN in Africa - African theory and practice.
3. The education of pupils with SEN within the African educational
system:
3.1. The African curriculum.
3.2. Teachers in Africa.
3.3.
The medium of instruction in Africa.
4. The education of pupils with SEN in Africa within traditional and
cultural African attitudes.
4.1.The position of the child in traditional
African society.
4.2. Traditional African attitudes towards children with a
disability.
4.3. Socio-economic views.
5. The education of pupils with SEN in Africa and African expertise.
Introduction
Having been a lecturer in Special Education in the service of the Botswana Government since September 1995, I visited and still visit several educational projects for pupils with Special Educational Needs (SEN) in Africa. Amongst others I keep in touch with the Pathlogo School in my home city Francistown. This primary school integrates the education of regular pupils and pupils who are blind or those who have low vision. In Kenya I was taught by associates the theory and practice of 'Undugu'. The objectives of this project in the slums of Nairobi are the prevention of and catering for street children. I visited the College of Education (Special) in Oyo. This Nigerian teacher training institution mainstreams student teachers with visual, hearing or physical disabilities. In Zimbabwe I contacted 'Jairos Jiri', an organisation for people with all types of disabilities, such as teaching children with a physical disability.
These projects have poor or non-existent records, not to speak about being evaluated. According to fellow resource persons and participants of the 'International Conference on Special Education' in Nigeria (1997), this lack of written and scientific processing of projects is a specific African characteristic of projects catering for pupils with SEN in Africa. Hence African projects hardly play a role in the debate on the education of pupils with SEN in Africa, while the African context is barely being taken into consideration when discussing this type of education in Africa. In this article I look at the education of pupils with SEN in Africa within the African context, and come back to the debate on this type of education in Africa at the end of the article.
Special Needs Education'. This periodical is published by the Uganda National Institute of Special Education (UNISE), a department of the Makarere University in Kampala.
Recommending this terminology the African Journal on Special Needs Education in turn follows the recommendations of the 'World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and Quality' as organised in Salamance, Spain in June 1994. This conference was attended by representatives of 92 countries and 25 international organisations, all of them siding with the 'Education for All' concept (Naicker, 1997, 64-65).
Developments in the education of pupils with SEN in Africa
In many African countries the education of pupils with SEN began as 'Special Education'. For example, Mrs. Margaretta from the Dutch Reformed Church started 'Special Education' by founding the Chivi Mission school for pupils with blindness in Zimbabwe. This example was followed by 'Special Education' for pupils with blindness in Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria, Uganda and Tanzania halfway through this century. In many countries 'Special Education' for pupils with blindness was followed by 'Special Education' for deaf pupils and in turn followed by 'Special Education' for pupils with physical disabilities soon afterwards. At the beginning the education of pupils with SEN was especially a mission concern. Governmental commitment to the education of pupils with SEN only got into its stride after the seventies. Some governments, however, like the Nigerian (1960) and the Kenyan (1963) started special education projects before (Moremi, 1998, 16; Munhunweyi, Adenigba, Ogonda, 1997, 10-12; Zindi, 1997, 18.)
Since the nineties the intellectual and political debate in Africa on the education of pupils with SEN has been focused on 'Mainstreaming' according to Zindi (1997). However, the following contributions show the debate revolves around both types of 'Special Needs Education': 'Mainstreaming' as well as 'Inclusion' come up in the discussions.
1. To promote 'Effective School for All' the UNESCO developed the Teacher Resource Pack 'Special Needs in the Classroom' at the end of the eighties. Kenia was one of the counries where it was tested in 1990-1991. Collaboration between staff members is the key method for teachers to improve their own teaching in this approach. The project was carried out in over forty countries in 1994. The British Project Director Ainscow writes in Project Newsletter Number 1 (1994): "An extensive international dissemination strategy is currently underway, with major regional developments in Africa, Asia, South America and the Carribean".
2. Most African countries south of the Sahara use the 'Resource Room' model according to Charema and Peresuh (1996.) This model is frequently in operation in western countries. Because of financial contsraints the two authors wonder if it would be wise for these African countries to develop their own, standardised supervision system for the education of pupils with SEN.
3. The Danish Chief Advisor of UNISE, Kristensen (1997, 69-72) pleads for 'Inclusion'. The Uganda government supports this plea by means of two projects:
(a) Unise, an institute for training, information processing and dissemination, scientific research, and development of teaching/learning methods for pupils with SEN.
(b) Special Education/EARS programme for 'Educational Assessment and Resource Services'. The following services are offered:
However, based upon earlier experiences in his home country, Kristensen doubts if 'Inclusion' is able to provide adequate education for all pupils with SEN in a qualitatively acceptable way:
4. The South African Federal Council on Disability (SAFCD) called on one educational system for all in October, 1995. At least 28 organisations and insitutions are involved in this appeal (Naicker, 1997, 65.)
The education of pupils with SEN in Africa - African theory and practice
According to Zindi (1997, 42-45), in theory many African countries show interest in the education of pupils with SEN. He indicates four factors to be decisive when it comes to converting theory into African practice:
As such Zindi's factors are applicable worldwide. However, for me they seem to occur as under a magnifying glass in Africa. Lack of money is crucial sometimes, political corruption ruthlessly, ineffectiveness of policy desastrously. In the next part of this article I focus on two of the four above mentioned factors: the traditional and cultural African attitudes, and the African expertise, after having given a rough sketch of the regular educational system in Africa.
The education of pupils with SEN within the African educational system
The debate on teaching pupils with SEN in Africa seems to have moved from 'Special Education' to 'Special Needs Education'. Consequently the teaching of pupils with SEN shall take place more and more within the regular African educational system. In this section I highlight three elements of the regular African educational system. To me these three elements are decisive when it comes to the quality of the conversion of the 'Special Education' approach into the 'Special Needs Education' approach. These elements are:
At 1. The African curriculum.
Mbiti (1989: 221) points to the African educational system as a serious threat to the African society. In traditional society boys and girl were prepared for life by being informed about marriage, sex and family life. No attention is paid to these aspects of life within the modern educational system; 'vivisection of a frog seems to carry more importance than preparation for community life'. Nevertheless, post-colonial governments still use this modern, western-based educational system for a set of reasons (Kisanji, 1996, 63-64):
In a provocative way Mihyo (1995) suggests another educational system could lead to another society making policymakers dependent on subordinates, implicating a loss of power and prestige. Next, a lack of money might be a reason to abandon educational innovations. As a result, a large part of the African education is not only western-based, but also outdated. Only subjects like Geography and History are occasionally 'africanised'. Within Science fundamental African contributions made in the past to the development of this discipline are even suppressed. As long as this happens, the school curriculum can never play a prominent role in the development of the African human culture (Mutasa, 1994, 70).
In conclusion one might say education of pupils with SEN in Africa has to be implemented within an educational system characterised by its isolation from society and its academically focused curriculum.
At 2. Teachers in Africa.
'Special Education' is taught by specialised teachers. 'Special Education' teachers have received special training in some African countries for a couple of decades. For instance, the Highridge Teachers' College in Kenya started teacher training specialised to teach pupils with a visual impairment and children with learning problems in 1960; at the same time the Kamwenja Teachers' College, also in Kenya, started teacher training specialised to teach pupils with a hearing impairment (Zindi, 1977, 48.) Nigeria and Zambia are mentioned in this context as well.
'Special Needs Education' is taught within the regular educational system, and therefore all teachers get involved. Are teachers well prepared to teach pupils with SEN? The following survey leads to a negative answer.
'Special Needs Education' demands training and supporting all teachers. Each country approaches this from its own point of view. For instance, Botswana focuses on pre-service teacher training by incorporating 'Special Needs Education' as a separate core subject in its Colleges of Secondary Education curriculum; in the meantime Kenya and Uganda focus on in-service teacher training by carrying out their 'EARS'-projects.
At 3. The medium of instruction in Africa.
During colonial times pupils had to communicate in the colonial language in most schools. African students were thoroughly trained to use English (or Portuguese, or French) language styles and discussion techniques (Veit-Wildt, 1993, 61.) In spite of their independence, many African countries maintained the former colonial language as the medium of instruction, instead of replacing it by African languages. According to Rwambiwa (1995,36) this policy undermines the development of millions of talented African people who master all subjects except for English. Observations have discovered that the formal education medium of instruction is frequently not even the second, but the third or fourth language of a pupil. It might be obvious that language policy actually leads to SEN in Africa.
The education of pupils with SEN in Africa within traditional and cultural African attitudes
To sketch traditional African attitudes does not imply Africa is traditional; that image does not reflect contemporary developments, amongst them current educational ones, as occurring in Africa. However, having insight into traditional African attitudes sheds light on motives as to why people behave in a certain way towards children generally and towards children with a disability specifically. It also sheds light on how people feel in the presence of children with a disability, and how people explain disabilities as such. Knowledge of these attitudes relates significantly to teacher effectiveness of teachers teaching pupils with SEN (Ozoji, 1991, vii) and hence it has to play a role in the debate on the education of pupils with SEN in Africa.
Three attitudes are explored in this section:
At 1. The position of the child in traditional African society.
In traditional African society a child is a highly valued member. The child assures biological continuation of the family, the child contributes to the economic and social prosperity of the community, the existence of the child implies above all the spiritual existence of society (Kisanji, 1996, 60.) It does not mean a child raises without concerns or plights. Mbiti (1989) elaborates on the child's position in traditional African society as follows: In contrast with the big world religions African religious life does not recognise 'a better life after death' to be earned during life on earth. After being physically dead the deceased stays alive as long as people are still talking about him/her: the stage of the 'living-dead'. If the talking stops, the dead man/woman disappears into the shadowy domain of the spirits and the death which is irreversible. Consequently a child implies the delay of death, the 'living-dead' remains an active member of society for a longer time. It is important for the child to pay continuous respect to the 'living-dead', his/her ancestors, because they are the contact persons between the living people and God to whom all good is attributed. Whenever something goes wrong it is attributed to someone, for instance a person who is suspected to have violated or is still violating traditional standards and/or values. This might lead to all kinds of disasters like drought, illness or death. As a result a child is trained to obey elder people and traditional customs unconditionally, while deviant behaviour is considered to be threatful.
A child with a disability is provided with an extended care system within the African system because education is a family matter: it involves grandfathers, grandmothers, father, mother, uncles, aunts, brothers, sisters, cousins, nephews and nieces. Nevertheless, a majority of childeren with a disability are not enrolled in formal education. Traditional attitudes and socio-economic views might explain this absence.
2. Traditional African attitudes towards children with a disability.
The results of Hops research (1996) into the Botswana attitudes towards children with a disability might be summarised in a scheme as follows:
Gulliford and Upton (1992, 150) distinguish between 'disability' and 'handicap':
At 3. Socio-economic views.
Obani (1997) states handicapped people do not exist, only people who are handicapped by society. Besides the already mentioned poverty, ineffectiveness of legislation and policy, and the traditional African attitude towards people with a disability Obani identifies a socio-economic handicap. This handicap is expressed in opinions like: · People with a disability have a below average, or evgen lack productive capicity. · The status of a firm employing a person with a disability deteriorates.
From Obani's point of view integration demands a changeover from the public opinion regarding people with a disability as an outsider to a public opinion regarding people with a disability as a contributive member of society.
The education of pupils with SEN in Africa and African expertise
In the debate on the education of pupils with SEN in Africa it is useful to take a number of characteristics of the African expertise in consideration.
The education of pupils with Special Educational Needs in Africa, looked at within the African context: discussion
Since the nineties the intellectual and political debate on the education of pupils with SEN in Africa has been concentrated on 'Special Needs Education'. In this article I mentioned a number of specific African factors that will affect the outcome of the debate in daily life. In the introduction I wrote that I visited several education projects for pupils with SEN in Africa. These projects show 'Special Needs Education' in Africa is feasible within the African context, at all sorts of level: from primary to tertiary, both 'mainstreaming' and 'inclusion'. Consequently I am not pessimistic despite all the problems to be encountered in practice. However, research on the African context is a first and necessary condition to convert the project character of the education of pupils with SEN in Africa into a structural Africa based 'Special Needs Education'. History demonstrates the implementation of non-African educational systems as such might have a contrary effect.
'Inclusive Education' is a two-element concept. Stressing 'Education' the concept concentrates on the enormous individual differences between pupils. Stressing 'Inclusive' it can be interpreted as a concept set in broad social discussion (Groot, 1996). In my opinion, the debate on the education of pupils with SEN ought to be coloured by the context in which it has to be implemented. As a result the debate on benefit, feasibility, and type of education of pupils with SEN in Africa has to be held in the perpsective of the willingness and possibility to:
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