Abstract
Pupils with autistic spectrum disorders frequently have difficulties with communication, social interaction and imagination as identified by the triad of impairments associated with the disorder. Social Stories have been developed by Carol Gray (1998) as a specialist teaching technique to teach pupils with autistic spectrum disorders a degree of social understanding.
The workshop will consider the social difficulties of pupils with autistic spectrum disorders within a mainstream setting. The Social Story format will be outlined and examples of successful Social Stories illustrated. Opportunities to consider specific problems and to write an appropriate Social Story will be given.
“Competent social skills are essential for effective inclusion of children with autism in mainstreamed classes.” Harris and Handleman (1997)
Rationale for Social Stories
Carol Gray first introduced the Social Stories approach in America and subsequently the approach has been used widely in the UK. Although research in this area is limited to date (Kuttler et al, 1998; Rowe, 1999; Swaggart et al, 1995) many practitioners are suggesting that the approach is useful, particularly for pupils with autistic spectrum disorder included in mainstream settings. The nature of autistic spectrum disorder inevitably leads to a degree of (social) exclusion so it is critical therefore to address the social difficulties of individual pupils if inclusion is to be successful.
Social Stories may offer a strategy for developing social understanding that will facilitate the inclusion of some pupils, who by the nature of the disorder, are frequently socially excluded. Such pupils may be excluded due to their inappropriate behaviour, arising from their lack of social competence.
Gray (1998) suggests that the development of isolated social skills in pupils with autistic spectrum disorder is inadequate and that efforts need to be made to develop social judgement and social understanding in order that social skills can then be used appropriately and generalised to a range of contexts. Gray (op cit.) makes a direct link between psychological factors and the Social Story approach, in particular ‘theory of mind’ (Baron-Cohen et al, 1985) and ‘weak central coherence’ (Frith, 1989). It is suggested that the use of the approach directly intervenes to improve the ability to see things from another's perspective and helps to integrate information into a more meaningful 'whole'. Gray further argues that "most people are privy to a secret code" (Gray, 1998, p.169) which she describes as "a system of unspoken communication that carries essential information; a system that eludes and frustrates individuals with high functioning autism and Asperger syndrome." This can result in a lack of social understanding, which affects the way an individual is able to use the social skills s/he acquires. Social Stories establish therefore "social understanding as an integral and prerequisite component to teaching social skills" (Gray, op cit.).
Guidelines for writing Social Stories
Gray (1998) specifies clear guidelines for producing a Social Story (pp 177-179), suggesting that stories should be individualised to take into account:
Authors of Social Stories are advised to
Writing a Social Story
Before writing a Social Story, authors are advised to ‘gather information’ about the situation the Social Story is about and to ‘tailor the text’ according to individual requirements. This includes individualising the language style and vocabulary and the mode of presentation. Social Stories should then be written using certain types of sentences. The basic types of sentence are described by Gray (1998) as:
Critical to the development of a Social Story, Gray advocates the need to adhere to a 'Social Story ratio'. This ratio "defines the proportion of descriptive, perspective, directive and control sentences in an entire Social Story" (p. 179). A basic rule of the Social Story is that there should be more descriptive sentences than directive and that the following ratio should be maintained, regardless of the length of the story:
0 - 1 directive or control sentence = Social Story Ratio
2 - 5 descriptive and/or perspective sentences
Affirmative sentences can also be used as statements that follow another sentence and emphasise the importance of a piece of information or to offer reassurance (e.g. some people like to play on the field, this is ok or I will try to listen when the teacher talks to me – this is important). A number of other sentences have also been identified including co-operative sentences (Gray, 1999).
Using Social Stories to facilitate inclusion
Social Stories have been used by teachers and other practitioners in Northamptonshire to address the difficulties some pupils’ experience and the impact upon the effectiveness of inclusion for these pupils. These have included difficulties with social behaviour at break times, assemblies, waiting for turns, being first, winning and losing, listening, following whole class directions. Research was carried out in a lower school to investigate the immediate impact of Social Stories upon the behaviour and social understanding of four pupils with autistic spectrum disorder. Success varied among individual pupils, although it was generally reported that Social Stories had a positive impact in terms of both social behaviour and understanding (Howley, 2000). Some factors that appeared to influence the effect of a Social Story in this study include the following:
Identification and assessment of the social impairment
In order for a Social Story to be successful it appears that it is critical to accurately assess the individual's social difficulties both in relation to their social behaviour and understanding prior to and following the use of a Social Story. The process of gathering information may well be as important as the end product of the Social Story itself.
Specification of the purpose and objectives of the Social Stories.
As a result of accurately identifying the individual's current level of social understanding and skills, specific objectives should be formulated against which the impact of the Social Story can subsequently be measured. Intended outcomes should be defined in measurable terms in order to ensure that progress can be monitored.
Details of implementation
Social Stories appear to be more effective when additional visual information is incorporated into the story. In addition, Social Stories are more likely to be successful if all adults (and peers when appropriate) are aware of the contents of the story.
Conclusion
Pupils with autistic spectrum disorder face many challenges if they are to be successfully included in mainstream classes. One of those challenges must be the social impairment as this lies at the core of the disorder. If Social Stories are helpful in addressing some of the difficulties in this area, they may well prove to facilitate inclusion for some pupils by improving their behaviour and their social understanding. However, further research in this area is required to establish factors related to effectiveness. These include long-term impact, generalisation of behaviour and understanding, and identification of groups of individuals for whom the approach is most likely to be successful.
Listening to the teacher: a story for Sally.
My name is Sally and I go to _____________ School.
Mrs ________________ is my teacher.
Sometimes other teachers come to teach my class.
Sometimes my teacher talks to me.
Sometimes the teacher talks to me and everyone else.
Sometimes the teacher talks to me and four, five or six other children at the same time. This is called a ‘group of children’.
Usually when the teacher is talking to my ‘group’ she will show me a card like this:
It is important to look at the teacher and listen to what she says when she is talking to my ‘group’.
This is because she is usually telling us what to do, or teaching us new things.
I will try to remember to look at the teacher and listen when she is listen when she is talking to the group.
The teacher is pleased when I look at her and listen.
Sometimes the teacher might ask me questions about what she has said. I can try to answer the questions. The teacher is very pleased when children listen and answer questions.
Bibliography
Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M. & Frith, U. (1985) ‘Does the autistic child have a ‘theory of mind’? Cognition, 21, pp.37-46
Frith, U. (1989) Autism: Explaining the Enigma. Oxford: Basil Blackwell
Gray, C. (1994). The New Social Story Book. Future Horizons.
Gray, C. (1995). A closer look at directive sentences. The Morning News, Summer, 4-7.
Gray, C. (1998). Social Stories and Comic Strip Conversations with students with Asperger Syndrome and High Functioning Autism. In: E. Schopler, G. Mesibov & L. Kunce (Eds.), Asperger Syndrome or High Functioning Autism? (pp. 167-198). New York: Plenum Press.
Gray, C. & Garand, J. (1993). Social Stories: Improving responses of individuals with autism with accurate social information. Focus on Autistic Behaviour, 8, 1-10.
Gray, C. (1999) Social Stories Unlimited TM Presentations and workshops. Unpublished workshop publication.
Harris, S. L. & Handelman, J. S. (1997) Helping children with autism to enter the mainstream. In: D. J. Cohen & F. R Volkmar (Eds.) Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders. Chichester: Wiley
Howley, M. (2000) An Investigation into the Immediate Impact of Social Stories on the Behaviour and Social Understanding of Four Pupils with Autistic Spectrum Disorder. Unpublished MA dissertation.
Kuttler, S., Smith Myles, B. and Carlson, J. (1998). The Use of Social Stories to Reduce Precursors to Tantrum Behaviour in a Student with Autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disorders, 12, 176-182.
Rowe, C. (1999). Do Social Stories benefit children with autism in mainstream primary school? British Journal of Special Education, 26 (1), 12-14.
Swaggart, B L., Gagnon, E., Bock, S.J., Earles, E.L. Quinn, C., Myles, B.S. & Simpson, R.L. (1995). Using Social Stories to teach social and behavioural skills to children with autism. Focus on Autistic Behaviour, 10, 1-15.
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