Presented at ISEC 2000

School inclusion in Victoria, Australia: The results of six case studies.

Tim Loreman (Monash University, Australia)

Abstract

This paper examines the results of six case studies conducted on children with significant disabilities included as full-time students in regular secondary classrooms in Victoria, Australia. These students are enrolled under the Victorian government's 'Program for Students with Disabilities and Impairments'. Although the State of Victoria has been involved in inclusion and integration since the 1980's, there has been little research, and especially qualitative research, aimed at discovering the effect inclusion has on students, schools and families within the Victorian context. These case studies examine the experiences of teachers, families and students who participated in the study. A purpose of this study is to identify factors that assist in barriers to effective inclusion in Victoria. Questions relating to how policy is translated into practice and what issues result from this are discussed. Victorian classroom practice is then examined in the broader context of Australian and UN legislation and policy, and the extent to which it complies with that legislation and policy.

Introduction

This study operates on the premise that the inclusion of all children with disabilities in mainstream schools is an issue of social justice, and is therefore an important end to pursue. A review of the literature indicates that research on the inclusion of children with significant disabilities in Victorian Secondary schools is scarce. This dearth of research, and especially qualitative research, was listed as one of the barriers to effective integration of children with disabilities in Australian schools by Gow, Ward, Balla, and Snow (1988). Qualitative research into inclusion is also lacking on the international level. A review of 785 articles on curricular research in severe disabilities in six selected journals between 1976 and 1995 revealed that qualitative studies represented only 1.2% of all journal articles. The reviewers called for an increase in qualitative research to address issues that could not be adequately covered by quantitative research (Nietupski, Hamre-Nietupski, Curtin, & Shrikanth, 1997). This study represents an attempt to explore and define significant issues surrounding the practice of inclusion in Victorian secondary schools through qualitative case studies so that areas for future research may be identified.

Methodology

This qualitative study examined the secondary school experiences of six individual children with disabilities attending mainstream secondary schools throughout southern Victoria. A qualitative case study design was chosen for this research because it can be exploratory in nature, seeking to describe and interpret rather than to test any specific hypothesis. According to Merriam (1988) "The decision to focus on qualitative case studies stems from the fact that this design is chosen precisely because researchers are interested in insight, discovery and interpretation rather than hypothesis testing (p. 10)."

Information was gathered from a variety of sources that were compared against each other in a process known as 'triangulation' (Denzin, 1978). These sources included interviews with students, parents, and school staff, classroom observations, information held in school files, and the occasional written submission from study participants. In total over 100 hours of interviews and classroom observation data were used as well as supporting documentation from files and written submissions. All interviews were semi-structured in nature (Miles & Huberman, 1994), allowing participants to guide the conversations within the parameters of the research agenda. Semi-structured interviews are "...guided by a list of questions or issues to be explored, but neither the exact wording nor the order of the questions is determined ahead of time." (Merriam, 1988, p. 74). Interview data was audio-tape recorded, transcribed, and returned to participants for further comment or modification.

Data analysis consisted of data reduction (assigning the data to categories), data display (placing the themes and categories into a format that is easy to read), and conclusion drawing/verification based on the data display (Miles & Huberman, 1994). All information was analysed on an ongoing basis throughout the data gathering process (Merriam, 1988; Miles & Huberman, 1994) using a technique known as the 'constant comparative method' (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). All data was coded using the Non-Numerical Unstructured Data Indexing Searching and Theorizing (NUD*IST) computer software program. Individual case studies on each of the six participating students resulted. These six studies were then compared and common themes were identified.

Sample

Six students were selected from a variety of schools scattered throughout southern Victoria. These schools represented a variety of socio-economic backgrounds and were located in metropolitan and rural areas. Three of the students were female and three were male. Two attended private Catholic schools and four attended State schools. Participating students were initially selected through the cooperation of the Department of Education, Victoria, and the Victorian Catholic Education Office. Selection at this level was based on schools who were known to have children with significant disabilities in attendance and who attracted supplementary funding to support these children. Schools who agreed to participate were asked to nominate the student in their school who they felt had the most significant disability requiring the most significant level of extra support. Six of these students from families who agreed to participate were then selected to form the subject of individual case studies. Of the students selected three had moderate intellectual disabilities, two had severe multiple physical disabilities and one had the combination of multiple physical disabilities and an intellectual disability.

Table 1: Student sample demographics

Results

Nine broad themes common across each of the six case studies emerged including 'academic performance', 'social difficulties', 'curriculum issues', 'teacher issues', 'aide issues', 'school ethos and attitudes', 'personality of student', 'funding and resource issues', and 'parental involvement'. The nine common themes were selected based on the number of times each theme was addressed in the data. Table 2 demonstrates the percentage of all 60 interviews conducted that addressed each theme, and the percentage of entire text dedicated to discussion of the themes.

Table 2: Occurrence of common themes in interview data.

Academic Performance

students with no intellectual disability, their impressive academic performance and intellect was perceived to be one of the factors that enabled them to overcome many of the barriers that their physical disabilities placed before them. Despite this, both students were thought to have poor general knowledge. They were thought not to be 'streetwise', possibly as the result of limitations placed on them by their disabilities (for example, a visual impairment reducing life experiences), but also as the result of reduced social interactions with peers.

For the students with diagnosed intellectual disabilities and Holly (who had no formal diagnosis) academic improvement was noted but it was seen as being slow. Difficulties with the curriculum have been blamed (see below) along with poor motivation in the cases of John and Roger. Holly's reports reflected a student achieving at an average to better than average level, however, many of her teachers admitted to making assessment tasks easier so that she was able to do well. Generally she was perceived to be struggling with much of the academic work, especially in science.

Social difficulties

Data gathered indicated that four out of the six case study students had significant difficulty in forming and maintaining friendships. Of the other two students, Angela had a 'best friend' but limited friendships with others, and Holly had a group of friends her age and led an active social life. With the exception of John, schoolyard teasing and bullying was not a significant concern but with the exception of Holly the students involved in this study did remain very much on the fringe of Secondary school social life. Roger even admitted to becoming a bully himself. Social isolation during the usual social times of lunch and recess was found to be particularly acute but was not restricted to these times. All but one of the students (Angela) was socially isolated during work time within the classroom. In the majority of cases, however, classmates were understanding of their disabilities and were willing to provide assistance if requested.

Curriculum issues

The Victorian Curriculum Standards Frameworks were seen as being difficult to modify to suit the needs of students with disabilities in four of the five case studies. Where curriculum was modified at Kate's school the modifications were seen as being beneficial to all students in the class but in general the Victorian curriculum was criticised for being rigid and inflexible. It was also perceived as not providing students with disabilities with some of the basic 'life skills' they were seen as needing. Teachers often aimed their lessons at the 'average' student in a class and neglected to modify the curriculum for students with disabilities.

Teacher issues

A variety of issues relating to teachers emerged from the data. In particular, it was apparent both from interview data and classroom observations that teachers believed they often lack the skills to include a child with a disability into a regular class. This may be a reflection of the subject-based nature of Secondary schools and the expository teaching styles employed by teachers in these settings. Many teachers reported having little or no formal training in catering for diverse learning needs, but said they were able to manage as a result of previous teaching experience and learning as they went. Most teachers reported having inadequate time to prepare to meet the needs of a student with a disability.

The need to balance the needs of the class with the needs of a student with a disability was also an issue that attracted some discussion. Many teachers felt that this was difficult but possible, especially in classes where many other students required some form of special assistance but in classes such as this the modifications required for one student were seen to be of benefit to many other students.

The appointment of an 'integration teacher' in schools was also seen as being helpful to teachers. Integration teachers were generally viewed as coordinators of the services and programs for a student with a disability as well as advisors and consultants to regular classroom teachers.

Aide issues

Regular contact with teacher aides was evident in five of the six case studies to varying degrees. The presence of an aide in the school and in classes was thought to be a contributing factor to the success of the inclusion programs. Many teachers and some parents expressed the desire for more aide time, even those who already had an aide available for many of their classes. In most instances teachers relied on the advice and support of the aide in a class but did not download the responsibility for the education of the student with a disability to that aide.

Aides, however, were not always seen as essential, and in four of the six case studies teachers indicated that their student with a disability would be able to cope in class without the presence of an aide. Angela's school did not employ any teacher aides and she was able to be successfully included in the school as part of the regular school community. Steve and Roger both resented the continual presence of aides in their classes and both indicated a desire to be allowed to work without an aide, citing the social stigma associated with the presence of an aide as the reason. Other students including Kate, Holly, and John happily accepted the presence of an aide and were able to recognise the benefits of having one. Classroom observations of all students indicated that the presence of an aide was socially isolating in class as they were generally assigned directly to the student rather than being used to support the entire class. Angela, who did not have an aide, was one of the least socially isolated of all of the case study students in the classroom.

School ethos and attitudes

A positive school ethos and the positive attitudes of staff within a school were factors that contributed significantly to the success of inclusion programs. In the case of two students who were experiencing the lowest level of success at school, John and Roger, the attitudes of many of the staff reflected a resistance to the idea of inclusion. In the case of the other four students, whose inclusion was described in terms indicating that it was successful, staff attitudes towards inclusion were generally positive. In Angela's case the existence of a school ethos of acceptance of diversity and caring for one another was discussed and observed. Elements of this type of ethos were also evident in the other three more successful schools. This level of acceptance had resulted in Steve's school attracting a high level of enrolments of students with disabilities, even from students outside of the school 'catchment' area. This was thought to be due to a negative attitude towards students with disabilities from other mainstream Secondary schools in the area.

Personality of student

In five of the six case studies the personality of the student was seen as being the primary reason for the successful implementation of inclusion at the school. Personality traits such as determination, motivation, curiosity, and a positive attitude towards learning were all listed as contributing to the success of case study students. Steve's occasional tendency towards 'rebellious teen' behaviour against adults could also be seen as positive, as this behaviour was viewed as an attempt to better fit in with his peer group. One student for whom inclusion was not particularly successful (Roger) was thought to be lacking many of the personality traits that contribute to successful inclusion.

Funding and resource issues

Funding was perceived to be inadequate in four of the six case studies. Two of these schools were Catholic and two were public. The two schools who indicated that their funding was adequate were public. Extra revenue was found from other sources to supplement funding in three of the four case study schools that perceived their funding to be inadequate. In one case this money came from general school revenues. One school supplemented the funding by 'fiddling the books' and using money from other school programs. In one school the perceived funding deficit was accounted for by grouping students with special funding together in the same class and sharing resources between them.

Despite the perceived inadequacy of special funding to support students with disabilities, the school inclusion of four of the six case study students was seen to be very successful. When asked where any additional funding could be spent teachers generally indicated that any extra money should be put towards the allocation of extra aide time.

Parent involvement

Where parents were mentioned by school staff they were seen as supportive, but in most instances they were seen as 'junior partners' in the education process. Significantly, while parents were mentioned by the majority of integration teachers at schools, mainstream subject teachers rarely discussed parents and in many cases had only briefly met them. Most mainstream subject teachers did not attend Program Support Group meetings due to the demands on their time and timetabling difficulties and so had no formal forum at which to discuss the education of the student with a disability attending their classes with parents. Parents mentioned that at times they found Program Support Group meetings to be intimidating. Nathan's integration teacher confessed to involving neither parents or other staff in the educational decision making process for that student.

Discussion

The results indicate that the case study schools seem to be having some difficulty in restructuring for inclusion. While not precluding the employment of some inclusive practices in specific instances, the general onus seems to be on the student changing to meet the needs of the school. This seems to be more indicative of 'integration' programs than schools that promote 'inclusion'. The traditional focus of integration has been to help the student with a disability conform to the norms of the school, whereas inclusion programs try to construct environments where all students can be successful regardless of ability (Loreman, 1999; Sailor & Skrtic, 1995).

The tensions between the capacity of schools to restructure for inclusion and the ability of the student to conform to the school environment was evident throughout the case studies. For example, the personality of the individual student was seen to be a crucial factor affecting the success of the programs under investigation. In light of this it seems that the case study schools have more of a focus on changing the behaviours of an individual student than modifying the way in which they operate. Furthermore, secondary school teachers were found to primarily utilise traditional expository teaching techniques with little chance for group work and student participation. There was also a strong feeling amongst teachers that they were there to teach subject content instead of using a more developmental approach to teaching students. Academic success was dependent on the individual student and their intelligence or commitment rather than appropriate instruction at school. Students unable to cover the set material for a subject were often disadvantaged. Curriculum was often not being modified according to recommendations from the Department of Education, Victoria. These findings support those of an earlier study of integration in Victoria conducted by Grbich and Sykes (1992) Teachers cited the inflexibility and irrelevance of the curriculum as reasons for this, however, their own lack of skills or willingness with regards to varying teaching methods may also be a contributing factor.

One theme that particularly reflected the tensions between school restructuring and student conformity was that of funding and resources. Both Catholic and Public school staff expressed a desire for more funding to support students with disabilities. Despite this, schools seemed to be managing with some teachers indicating that funding was adequate to support their case study student. The two Catholic schools involved in this study seemed to be coping particularly well, with Angela's school in particular doing an outstanding job according to Angela, her mother, and school staff. Students with disabilities in Catholic schools attract Commonwealth government funding but no extra funding from the Victorian government. This means that in almost all cases students with disabilities in Catholic schools receive approximately 75% less funds than do their counterparts in State schools (Catholic Education, 1999). Despite this large financial inequity, the Catholic schools under examination seemed to be at least as successful at including students with disabilities as their State counterparts.

It may be possible to explain the success of some schools regardless of levels of special funding by looking at the issues of 'school ethos and attitudes' and 'aide issues'. Schools such as Angela's with a strong positive school ethos in favour of valuing diversity and helping others seemed to be more successful in including case study students. These were schools that seemed to be taking steps towards restructuring the way in which they work so that all students are able to participate. This positive ethos can be reflected in staff attitudes towards teaching students with disabilities. In the cases of Angela, Kate, Steve, and Holly most staff members were positive about the benefits of including their particular student. These students and their families all expressed satisfaction with their experiences at school. Where positive attitudes existed amongst school staff, a more inclusive environment seemed to result.

Although case study schools regretted the fact that there were perceived funding inadequacies to meet the needs of students with disabilities, when asked how extra money could be spent almost all participants cited increased time with a teacher aide as being desirable. The perception of staff (and some families) that more time in class with a teacher aide would improve participation and learning for a student with a disability is interesting in light of contrasting evidence from the case studies that the presence teacher aides in a classroom, while important in some respects, had their drawbacks and were not always required to support the learning of a particular student. Once again the tension between school restructuring and student conformity becomes a factor. Teacher aides tended to position themselves close to the student with a disability and work directly with them. This was not only socially isolating but also not always felt to be academically helpful for the student, a finding supported in other international studies involving teacher aides (Giangreco, Edelman, Evans Luiselli, & MacFarland, 1997; Gormley & McDermott, 1994). The use of a teacher aide at such 'close range' may indicate that the content of class has not been adequately modified to meet the needs of all. At Angela's school, where no teacher aides were employed, teachers managed their work through modifying classes and pairing her with capable and helpful students as well as allowing her time during the school day outside of scheduled classes to work with the integration teacher and catch up on work. The emphasis at this school was not so much on Angela 'keeping up' with her peers, but instead on classes being designed to meet her needs.

Parents received little attention from staff in the case study data, and this fact alone makes it an issue worth mentioning. Many teachers had only briefly met the parents of the student with a disability they were teaching. This is a strong indication that parents are not viewed as equal partners in the educational process by schools. This again is an indication that the secondary schools have not adequately restructured for inclusion. The notion that family involvement is important to the success of students with disabilities in regular schools is now widely accepted (Dempsey, 1996; Friend & Bursuck, 1999; Hayes, 1998; Jorgensen, 1995; Strickland & Turnbull, 1990), however, this does not seem to be occurring to any significant degree in the schools under investigation.

The schools under investigation were all at various stages in the process of reconciling the way in which they have traditionally worked and been structured with the needs of students with disabilities who now make up a percentage of their student body. The data from these schools would indicate that funding levels are no barrier to becoming an inclusive school. Rather it is the ethos and attitudes within a school along with the ability of the teachers within a school to embrace changes and re-think and restructure the ways in which they work which seem to make the most difference.

Acknowledgements

The advice, support, and editorial assistance of Associate Professor Glenn Rowley, Associate Professor David Harvey, and Dr. Joanne Deppeler at Monash University is gratefully acknowledged.

References

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Index