Abstract
Technology has made teaching and learning easy for all categories of children including those with limited vision. This paper takes a look at the different instructional technological materials that are used in teaching children with low vision and critically analyses their availability and application in schools for persons with visual impairment towards remedying the situations, implications are also generated for government, the Ghana Education Service and other stakeholders.
Introduction
The controversy that has surrounded the use of residual visual has been a protracted one. Lowenfield (1983) observes that some educationist have suggested that the use of residual vision is responsible for its deterioration whilst others have suggested that non-visual means of learning prepares the person with limited vision for the total loss of sight ( Hatlen and Curry 1987)
A study by Barraga (1983) suggests that visual efficiency increases in children with low vision through its constant usage. This position currently underpins the new thinking and practice in the education of children with low vision in Ghana. The paper examines the use of instructional technology in the education of pupils with low vision in schools in Ghana. While the general model of educating pupils with visual impairment is largely in residential settings (especially at primary school level), the impact of instructional technology at secondary and tertiary level is also highlighted because, at that level teaching is in the mainstream/integrated settings. The point is made that instructional technology is useful in the education of children with visual impairment generally and yields significant dividends for many children with low vision, and other forms of seeing difficulties. The almost absence of many of the state of the art technology is identified is the cause of the overly reliance on Braille, which is resulting in the minimal use of residual vision in children . Many of these children it has been observed have the potential of benefiting from the use of their residual vision. Specific research studies are cited to indicate there are number of pupils with low vision in the mainstream who could also benefit from low grade technology. Low vision is used in the present context to refer to all pupils and children with moderate to profound levels of visual impairment but with significant levels of residual vision. The categorisation has been broaden to include those other children that have refractive errors which impede successful learning in class. These individuals are located both in special schools and in the mainstream.
Instructional technology in teaching children with limited vision
Modern technology has also advanced such that there has been the introduction of appropriate and user friendly visual equipment like optical devices in the form of spectacles, telescope, lenses, hand-held magnifiers to meet the educational needs of this category of children. Although technology can be a key factor in facilitating access for visually impaired students to many courses, it must be remembered that it is not a panacea for all curricular barriers that may be encountered at school. (Webster and Roe1998). Clearly many students face barriers to access low vision services such as cost, the unavailability of low vision practitioners, geographic distance from services, attitude of parents and teachers who feel that nothing can be done to improve visual functioning and the lack of knowledge of services(Willaimson, Stewart,Tranthan2000). In addition to this, Corn (1986) suggests improvement upon the use of teaching methods that rely on the use of environmental modifications, which tend to facilitate learning in children with limited vision.
Classification
Keefe (1995) contends that equipment used in modern technology can be grouped essentially into two. These are optical and non-optical devices. Optical devices comprise lenses which are placed between the eyes and the object and these helps in spreading the image on the retina of the eye which contains the photo-receptor cell as well. Unfortunately, these optical devices are not commonly used in the schools for children with visual impairment in Ghana. A survey conducted by the authors of this paper at Akropong School for the Blind ( a residential school for pupils with blindness in Ghana) involving 248 pupils in 1898/99 academic year revealed that out of this number, there were 74 children with low vision who were screened by the by the Ghana Eye Care Programme, and considered to have the potential for reading print. These numbers were made up of 46 males and 28 females spread across all the classes from Primary through the junior secondary -which is the first three years in secondary school, and the Rehabilitation centres as well. The findings further revealed that only about 10% of the pupils with low vision used a form of optical devices in learning . This device was usually a spectacle. Spectacles thus seem to be the main device used by the children involved in the study. Pupils with low vision benefit from using low vision aid, and such example include not only spectacles but hand-held telescope, binoculars, stand or hand -held magnifiers, illuminated magnifiers and close circuit TV magnifiers (Mason 1999)
Non Optical Devices
Other forms of instructional materials include non-optical devices, which do not involve lenses. These are rather devices, which alter environmental cues like light, contrast, and table lamps (Best 1992). Most of the non-optical devices are generally expensive. For this reason, schools for children with visual impairment in Ghana can hardly acquire them.
Research perspectives
In another study conducted on the use of instructional technology for persons with low vision on the 'Hohoe Intergrated Education Programme,' it was revealed that a little over 470 pupils had visual impairment or complaints of visual problems- This number includes reflective errors and minor visual problems as well. Of this number, three hundred and five 305 pupils representing 63.9% have been screened medically. Fourteen (14) pupils constituting 4.4% out of the lot have been provided with reading glasses by the 'Sight Savers International' (Ocloo and Nyade 1998). In the United Kingdom for example, specific training is given to children when an LVA/D has been prescribe. In such instances, the child must undergo specific training in its efficient use and this is usually the responsibility of the advisory teacher in the first instance, as the use of it may involve developing a new set of complex skills (Mason 1999)
Within the Akwapim North District of Ghana, as many as 20 pupils were placed on the Integrated Education Programme after a little over 200 pupils were screened. Out of this number, 20 pupils were placed on the Intergrated Education Programme and 8 pupils were provided with spectacles which enabled them to function in the regular schools system. It is generally becoming increasingly apparent that more children with visual impairments or with low vision could be integrated into the regular schools if more diversified optical devices are provided for them. Even so, at one time in the United Kingdom, it was widely believed that all-reading materials for children with visual impairment needed to be in large type. The current understanding is that with the appropriate LVAs and training, even children with very low vision can use standard print sizes for some purposes(McCall 1999).
Implications
Many children with limited or residual vision in some schools in Ghana can benefit from many types of lenses. These lenses help educationally because they result in the correction refractive errors. The 'strength of the lens or the LVA/D is expressed in dioptress and by dividing the number by 4(four) the magnification can be calculated' (Mason 1999,p16). It is however important to note that while some children who are photophobic may require tinted spectacles, and others wear special filters, spectacles do not always help to correct or improve a visual impairment. Those eye conditions affecting the retina, optic nerve and other parts of the eye cannot be helped by spectacles (Mason, McCall, Arter, McLinder, Stone 1999)
Organizing learning experiences
Methods that are used in organizing the classroom and the learning experiences of the pupils with low vision depend on the learning characteristics of these learners. The teachers need to know what equipment and learning materials are available. What seems to be the orthodoxy in many schools in Ghana is the use of chalkboards, which are usually of varying sizes and shapes. The use of charts are also widespread. Other materials that are used include textbooks, exercise books, pictures, wall hangings, texture boards, maps. Material libraries are also available. The challenge posed for the average classroom teacher is an unavailability of these materials in the classrooms. Inadequate quantity of colour chalks, felt pens, large print copies of textbooks, personal readers, audio-visual materials for use by children with limited vision.
This apparent difficulty notwithstanding, teachers of children with special needs are not unaware of the fact that material library of the child should be rich with resource materials of all kinds which can occupy them during normal teaching moments. As a consequence of this understanding by some teachers, attempt are made to improvise materials in order to give the learners concrete of experiences, additional stimulation and individual activity among children with limited vision.
What is available elsewhere Optical aid electronic devices and magnifiers are varied in form, size and method of use. These include those with stands, hand-held magnifiers, spectacles, mounted aids, telescopes, close-circuit system and the viewscan (Corn, 1986;Best 1992). According to Barraga (1983) low vision children with mild defects can make good use of stand and hand-held aids and telescopes for short reading tasks, reference task or for checking for details.
Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) 'is a piece of equipment made specifically for readers with visual impairment and many partially sighted people find them valuable' (Hutchinson, Atkinson, Orpwood1998p172).
For close-circuit television, it allows the student to place reading materials under an adjustable zoom lens and read the magnified image as it is projected on a television monitor. As in many Screen Magnification Systems some people with visual impairment may find the magnification provided by large monitors on a computer to be satisfactory without need for specific access technology (Hutchinson et al 1998). The point is made further by Lodge that there are other low-tech speech systems equipment that may be useful to students, and these include devices such as talking compass, colour tester, talking calculator and various teletext readers (Lodge 1996 cited in Hutchinson et al 1998).
The Ministry of Education and other Educational Administrators as well as service providers in Ghana could purchase these special visual and electronic aids which are available as a result of technology. These can help persons with low vision to read print with some clarity and ease and to modernize the state of the art in technology use.
What is available for those with Limited Vision in Ghana
The state of the art in terms of technology for children with visual impairment and low vision is still at a very rudimentary level. The socio- ecomonic dificulties of the country makes the provision of relevant technology for persons with low vision look like a luxury since it has never been a priority to allocate money for the purchase of these items. What has to be noted is the fact that the provision of optical and electronic magnifiers are neither educational luxuries nor curative measures; they are essentially educational tools which provides children with limited vision the possibility to use printed materials to enhance their regular means of study. (Corn 1986).
The scenario in Ghana is one in which children with low vision are educated along those with blindness, using the same non-visual means predominantly. While indeed there are some children in regular classrooms whose visual problems are not usually as serious as those in other settings for educating children with visual impairment, modern technology equipment is not readily available, and teachers do not as a result consciously use environmental modifications to assist children with low vision to use their residual vision in the classroom setting. A number of writers such as (Best 1992; Corn 1986) have listed non-optical devices that are not electronic and environmental modifiers to include books stands, large print books, high intensity lamp, acetate, illumination and contrast and similar others. These visual and environmental modifications when appropriately use can enable the child with low vision to read print from books and see objects more clearly. Bookstands for example make it possible to elevate angle and or bring print closer to the student's eyes. High density lamps are also non-optical devices that are needed to provide the amount and angle of light needed by students for maximum reading efficiency (Corn1986; Best 1992).
Children with low vision are able to function more comfortably and effectively under optimal conditions of lighting both natural and artificial. Through modern techniques of teaching children with low vision some progress has been made in the use of environmental modifications. Jose (1983); and Corn (1986 ) observe that the introduction of technology has led to equipment like radio, tape recorders, talking book machine and others which enable the child with low vision to relax and listen to information from such devices thereby enriching the knowledge of the child. According to Keefe (1995), proper handling, adjustment and all that there is about the use of equipment is the responsibility of the teacher. It is difficult to deny the fact that many pupils with visual impairment have complex needs, and it is the role of the teachers to ensure that they have full access to the curriculum, allowing them to achieve their potentials. Solutions to these problems are not always simple and that wearing glasses or using enlarged print materials will not necessary meet the child's needs (Arter et al 1999)
Conclusion
Children with low vision in Ghana are at an obvious disadvantage owing to the fact most of the equipment is not readily available. The unavailability of equipment as has been suggested is connected to the harsh economic pressure on both government and parents. As at now, the commonest equipment one can find in schools and among children with visual impairment is generally the tape recorder which is extensively used at the senior secondary schools and the University levels. Although this tends to be combine with the use of Braille, it is clear the influence of Braille only serves to limit the use of residual vision amongst those that can make use of their residual vision.
As has been argued already, one of the approaches to accessing print in special education is to use tape -recorded material. Pupils in secondary and tertiary education in Ghana 'may need to become adept at taping in order to cope with large volume of information (Webster &Roe 1998 p184 ).
If the contention is that children with low vision can perform better if they are trained to use their residential vision effectively, then this is worth exploring in greater depth in order to maximize their potentials. This potential could be enhanced by the use of optical devices and other technology equipment. The gradual effect would be a de-emphasise on rigid reliance on Braille for those with significant residual vision.
Gradually teachers are now being sensitized to the actual needs of these individuals within the context of mainstream classrooms and other integrated settings. Sensitivity to needs is insufficient in supporting children with low vision in both special and in an integrated classroom. What has to be put in place has to be equipment such as optical devices and electronic gadgets that can make their education more meaningful. Until these are achieved, many children with low vision would continue to grapple with the complexities that are involved in being taught together with others that are either blind or seeing.
References
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