Introduction
This paper outlines some attempts that are being made by the department of special education, at the University in the Winneba Metropolis, Ghana to promote inclusive practices. The University College of education Winneba is a teacher training institution. This institution has been at the forefront of teacher training in Ghana. In the institution's attempt to respond to children's difficulties, and to promote effective teaching and learning, the School Attachment Programme was introduced. Through the SAP it is possible for students in training to be attached to some primary schools in Winneba over a period of about ten weeks in a semester. This attachment is besides the teaching practice, which also forms an essential component of the University's programme. While SAP activities have made it possible for a number of pupils with difficulties to be identified in many primary schools in Winneba, the Department of Special Education has further adopted one of these schools- Anglican primary school for promoting inclusive practices.
Collaboration between the schools, parents and the department of special education in this regard is discussed in this paper. This collaboration is further cited as critical to the success of inclusive practices, and the improvement of quality learning outcomes in schools. Some of the initial difficulties and constraints facing the initiative are also mentioned.
In -service programme for teachers are based largely on the UNESCO PACK, but other methods of helping pupils with difficulties are also incorporated. Feed back from pupils work sample over the past year, as well as feed back from teachers, and some parent suggests that inclusive practices can be worth while. This initial phase of the project involves only pupils with severe reading difficulty, hearing impairment, visual problems and a broad range of pupils having specific learning disabilities.
Many of the children involved in the project have in the past merely been physically present in their classrooms, and have not been actively included by the teachers in activities .
Some Issues arising from the inclusive debate
In recent years a growing sense of injustice regarding the idea of segregated special schooling for these children has led to calls for more inclusive educational opportunities as a matter of human rights and equal opportunity ( Florian, Rose and Tilstone, 1998). Farrell also comments that human rights position on inclusion is essentially flawed and ultimately unhelpful. His arguments are based on the fact that such a position has the effect of moving the debate away from more important empirical questions relating to the development of inclusive practices. Furthermore, he suggests that adopting the human rights discourse does not contribute to the development of higher quality education for all pupils, including those with special needs (Farrrell 2000).
Clearly inclusion as a concept is heavily debated. Hall for example, has argued that the idea is more as a philosophical concept than a pragmatic approach to educating people with special needs (Hall 1996). Ainscow, Farrell, Tweddle and Malki (1999) note that there remains some confusion about what is meant by inclusion in relationship to the educational provisions. Feiler and Gibson (1999) also states that there is a lack of consistency in the definition and understanding of inclusion.
Within the context of this paper however, inclusion is taken a stage further to describe the way mainstream schools should cater for all their pupils and pupils with SEN, whom it is argued, will benefit from schools developing inclusive practices for all their pupils (Ainscow 1998 cited in Farrell 2000).
Based on this understanding the practical overall success of inclusive practices should dwell on 'school restructuring' which is now just beginning to be rediscovered in a number of schools in Ghana. Tilstone and Rose (in press) citing the works of Ainscow, Hopkins and West (1994); and Ainscow (1995) observed that the following factors were critical to improving schools. These factors are listed as ;
Sapon-Shevin has also stated that; 'an essential component of wide ranging school reform is a shared agenda: the understanding that fixing the school for some children must mean fixing the school for all children, (1994/1995 p70). Many of the schools in Winneba, have not achieved these level of school restructuring required for successful inclusive practices, but it must be stated that a few schools are beginning to rethink their policies and structure to accommodate children with special needs. Ainscow comments elsewhere that 'I have recently seen evidence of significant progress in this direction in countries as diverse as …Ghana'(Ainscow 1997, p3). The fact is the department of special education which is the initiator of the present project is also only gradually beginning to restructure following some recommendation on its curriculum by a UNESCO sponsorship project in 1995, under the consultancy of professor Mittler. More recently the influence of the Salamanca Statement (1994), and the UNESCO training pack have also contributed to the apparent shift in perspectives and changing orientation.
The Winneba initiative and the School Attachment Programme in context
Winneba is one of the 12 districts of the central region of Ghana. The town has the University College of Education, which was established in 1992 with the aim of training teachers for pre-tertiary education.
Since the setting up of the University College, School Attachment Programme (SAP) has been undertaken by each year group of student teachers. Each year group is usually put into 2 batches for the duration of the entire academic year.
From 1994 to 1996 all student teacher in the fifteen- (15) departments of the University College completed a general SAP tasks. General SAP task is usually a set of task for all students in a particular year group. However, from 1997 to date student-teachers of the department of Special Education of the University College of Education do a different set of tasks from the rest of the other students in the University. Initially, the focus of this task was primarily to isolate pupils who were suspected to be having difficulties with schools work for referral and support. Support was thus giving to only those pupils with obvious disabilities or problem. From 1998 however, emphasis shifted towards supporting all pupils and teachers within specific classrooms. The essence of the current re-direction in approach is aimed at encouraging a 'welcoming' classrooms for all learners in the same classroom. While indeed individualisation and instructional adaptation are simply incompatible with the prevailing structure of the general education classroom (Baker and Zigmon1990; Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, Philip and Karns 1995), there is still some level of support on individual basis. The general trend as has been earlier mentioned however, is towards helping all pupils in the class to learn. Barton argues that inclusive education is about responding to diversity; it is about listening to unfamiliar voices, being open, and empowering all members and about celebrating differences in dignified ways. He argues further that from such a perspective, the goal is not to leave any one out of school (Barton 1997; 233). This is indeed one of the long-term objective of the current project.
Nature and types of difficulties
During the 1997/98 academic year, out of one thousand three hundred and eighty six (1386) pupils from twenty-two (22) basic schools in the Winneba circuit, one hundred and fifty-six (156) pupils had special needs and other related problems that needed support. There was however evidence pointing to the fact that only a small number of the two hundred and sixty-eight (268) basic school teachers handling these pupils had some knowledge in special education principles and methodologies. What is revealed by this trend of affairs is that adequate forms of support was not in place for many of the children until the Schools Attachment Programme started. The difficulties of pupils that have been identified over the period have included those listed below on table 1
Table I. Specific needs and difficulties of pupils identified in 1997/98
| Category | Number of pupils |
| Hearing problems | 15 |
| Visual Problems | 17 |
|
8 |
| Reading | 112 |
| Spelling | 56 |
| Mathematics | 48 |
| Behaviour | 9 |
Most of the pupils had more than a single difficulty (special needs). For instance, there were some pupils whose difficulties manifested in severe reading difficulties and mathematics. While others have difficulties in spelling and mathematics. For those with hearing problems, nine (9) of them had otitis media (ear infection) when they were referred for treatment, their conditions improved significantly. Only one pupil had profound hearing loss. Such children in the past would have been pushed out of the mainstream into special schools. With the current support for inclusive practices initiated by the department of special education, it is now possible for these individuals to remain in regular school and be supported through a weekly speech training session at the department of special education in Winneba.
In the past year ten (10) more basic schools have been included in the SAP, bringing the total number of schools involved to thirty-two (32). Many of these schools have about four streams that are usually labeled A, B, C & D. Out of a sample of 350 pupils in these schools, 75 (seventy -five) of them have difficulties in some specific areas. Table 2 below shows these specific difficulties.
Table 2 Types of Special Needs and other related school difficulties from the ten schools now part of SAP
| Type | Number of pupils |
| Reading | 26 |
| Writing | 28 |
| Spelling | 10 |
| Behaviour | 1 |
| Speech | 6 |
| Truancy | 4 |
| Total | 75 |
Anglican primary school as a focus.
Anglican Primary School, Winneba has the highest number of children with special needs. As a result of this, a monthly in-service training programme has been designed for the staff. During the first three months of the in-service programme, it was held on a bi-weekly basis. In these sessions the teachers were exposed to the UNESCO Teachers Education Resource Pack, as well as methodologies in handling pupils with special needs.
Subsequently home visits have now been incorporated into the programme and some parents are playing pivotal roles in supporting these initiatives as well as keeping their children in school.
During the 1999/2000 academic year, which started from October 1999 to June 30th 2000 two more batches of student teachers, numbering one hundred, and thirty one (131) continued with the SAP activities. Eighty (80) student teachers undertook the programme from October 1999-Feb 2000. While fifty-one (51) continued from March to June 2000.
Fifteen (15) student teachers were attached to the Anglican Primary School to continue with the pupils that had been identified as having problems and difficulties at school. As has been indicated, these children were identified in 1998, and subsequent batches of student teachers have followed their progress since then.
Support
Student teachers are assigned directly to all pupils that have difficulties. This is done with the understanding of parents, class teachers and the school. Apart from this direct assistance, the support teams also works hand-in-hand with class teachers as well. A team of 5 lecturers from the department of Special Education, play supervisory roles within the context of this support arrangement.
Currently, direct coaching or assistance is being offered to all the pupils in their respective difficult areas. Classroom teachers are given opportunities to co-teach some of the activities used by the SAP teams for the pupils. The most frequently recommended type of support for general educators who are including students with disabilities in their classrooms is some form of collaboration or co- teaching arrangements with special educators (Friend and Cooke 1996). It has to be noted that while 'collaborative approaches to teacher support build upon multiple perspectives and sources of planning instruction, the implementation of jointly planned approaches remain the responsibility of the general educator. As classrooms become even more diverse and demand placed upon the general educator increases, collaborative support may in some cases not be enough' (McGregor and Vogelsberg 1998, p46-47). The role of the regular classroom teachers, and the part to be played by parents are therefore critical to the success of this programme, as it is with any such initiative.
Ethical consideration and contact with parents.
Student teachers are made to consult with parents and seek their consent to work with their children. During such home visits, student-teachers interview parents about their child's problem. They ask parents whether they are aware of their child's problems. If they are, then attempts are made to seek their consent to help the children at school. Student teachers also ask parents about the nature of support parent are willing to give their children. They also ask parents to discuss some of the problems they encounter as parents whose children have special needs in regular schools.
Parents' Dilemma.
So far all has not gone on smoothly or very well with some parents, since a number of them have openly expressed their frustrations by stating 'they are not prepared to work with student teachers', or 'they simply refuse to talk during consultations'.
All the parents contacted are aware that their children have problems that are interfering with schools work but are unaware of exactly what to do after protracted periods of 'seeking cure'
There is a deep influence of the medical and religious models of conceptualization of disabilities generally, and as a result of these, many problems are seen as 'within factor' problems or blamed on religious/superstitious beliefs.
But the general exasperation of many parent is expressed in sentiments such the one below by one parent of a child with visual problem, who stated that;
'I was simply tired of trying again and again. I am a single parent with no money to send the child to hospital or procure lens for the child'. (Name of parent withheld for ethical reasons)
In this particular instance the child was referred to the hospital and spectacles were recommended. The mother, who is a single parent and unemployed as well, did not have the means to get one for the child. This is a scenario where spectacle are critical if the pupil is to remain in the mainstream. During such and other similar situations, efforts are made by the student teachers to pay the bills if the problem requires medical attention. Logistics and finance can be a potential threat indeed to inclusive practice in the context of many developing countries such as Ghana. To keep this initiative on track, the department of special education through its audiological support unit attracts funding from some non-governmental agencies to offset the cost of hearing aids and other essential equipment that pupils need from time to time, which parents are unable to provide because of concerns for certain primary needs such as 'even what to eat'.
On a number of other occasions, the team encourages parents and educate them on the need to support efforts directed at assisting their children where the means of doing that is available. Frustration by parent presents in many forms. McGregor and Vogelsberg (1998) cited studies by Giangreco, Cloninger, Mueller,Yuan & Ashworth (1991) who interviewed 28 parents about service provisions between family and teachers. The parents expressed strong concern about program stability, fear about the future, and frustration with varied and continually changing team of professional with whom they were involved. Furthermore they wanted to be heard and consulted when decisions were considered about programme changes for their child. The parents in the above study obviously live in a different social context from what prevails in Ghana , and probably have a stronger financial support base than many of the parents in the Winneba project , who are typically of average and of very low income groups.
What seems similar with the two sets of parents in both studies is the concerns about the continually changing groups of professional they have to deal with. What is dissimilar is the fact that for many parents in the present programme like others in some developing countries, their preoccupation is with 'the struggle for basic improvement in preventive medical cure than the more ideological and abstract issues associated with disability policies which become of secondary importance, and in countries where the majority are disadvantaged, there may not be the cultural space for expressing the level of compassion which other more privilege countries can offer'(Corbett 1998p40 ). This position underscores the fact that there is a limit to the extent that parental involvement can be sustained even if they are persuaded to actively get involved initially with all the details of the school programme. Already some of them are beginning to think that their time is unnecessary being wasted. Besides the frequent involvement of student-trainees yearly in their lives is sometimes seen as a form of intrusion, since their financial circumstances are not improved as a consequence of that, but rather add to it.
The nature of the university programmes of training however, makes it unavoidable that different set of students meet these parents each year, since others would have to move on to become teachers in schools all over the country.
The points raised above are some of the acknowledge sources of tension that are possible threats to the initiative on inclusion in Winneba schools.
It is however pertinent to indicate that some parents have seen some value in this initiative of trying to include, and support children who are having difficulties in school. In a similar vein researches from America, such as that of Ryndak, Dowing, Morrison and Williams (1996) also suggests that parents on the whole view inclusive systems as vehicles for positive option for their children.
Emerging trends
Regular teachers are now beginning to get a better understanding and experience in dealing with the learning problems, and the other needs of children at the Anglican Primary School. Studies by Bennett, Deluca, and Bruns (1997) in the United States also found similar positive relationship between teacher confidence and experience with inclusion. These teachers are also receiving more support from other members of the team. Clearly teachers that are well supported in their attempts at including pupils with difficulties are more likely to report of success in their effort (Wolery, Werts, Caldwell, Snyder and Liskowski, 1995)
Another significant outcome of this project is that a relationship between the University College of Winneba and these schools is making it possible for student teachers in training to have more exposure and thus develop their skills in handling children with difficulties based on the guidelines of the UNESCO PACK (which before the Anglican project was only part of the department's collection of resource materials, and was not used in connection with in service programmes ).
Overall, the benefit of this initiative for student teachers at the department of special education is that they are becoming more confident, ready and skilful to manage the needs of students generally. 'A key issue in promoting inclusive practice must be a reappraisal of the training provided to teachers and other professionals. The pace at which we move towards inclusion will inevitably be dictated not only by legislation, but also through the means by which we equip teachers to meet the more complex needs of pupils moving from special to mainstream schools'. ( Florian, Rose, Tilstone1998p6). These authors cite the works of Mittler (1992) who comments that the preparation of teachers for the challenges ahead must begin with initial teacher training, and permeate through the entire profession. The focus of the Winneba project is thus in line with introducing students teachers to inclusive practice, so that when they leave school they would carry these values with them to the schools and classrooms they will work in.
What is even more significant in respect of this project is the fact that evidence of gradual improvement socially and academically in the children is already being recorded. Furthermore, pupils with seeing and hearing problems are identified and given various level of support to cope in the mainstream.
Conclusion
As a programme which is still on going, it is premature to make overall conclusion and comments about its successes, even though as has been discussed, there are a few evidence of this already being noted . Furthermore, although collaboration and support remains vital (especially on the part of teachers in regular schools and special educators), this needs to be continuously reinforced if more significant in-road are to be made.
It must be pointed out that the lack of equipment and material support in many of the schools in Winneba, couple with the low income of many parent can be a potential derailing point of pushing many of these children who are in mainstream to special school and institutions. In residential institution and schools in Ghana, parents and pupils 'do not pay anything' for supplies and equipment-furniture. Victual among others remains free. This alternative tends to be attractive to some parents since it relieves them of some of the pressures of modern life, especially in respect of daily sustenance.
Besides these problems, school restructuring and policy is largely dictated by the Ministry of Education, and some of the personnel in this ministry are usually unsympathetic to policies on inclusive education (At least, this is our understanding, having worked with some of them for years now. This position does not however necessary represent the official stand and opinions of some others). Directors of Education in all the Regions of Ghana need to be upgraded on the UNESCO PACK, since many of them were inadvertently or deliberately left out of the initial training and orientation workshops. To put the argument rather bluntly, some Directors of Education in the various Districts in Ghana, tend to be seen as obstacles to the change process involving inclusive practices. Even though this point can again not be collaborated by any research findings, feedback from teachers involved in inclusive/ integration practices the over the country have been particularly overwhelming in this regard.
The Winneba initiative is in its very early stages, there seems to be a determination to continue with this initiative on the part of the department, until all the schools in the metropolis begin to create 'welcoming classrooms,' and also begin 'celebrate difference'. For many developing countries however, there is the need for more support from governments and international agencies to sustain children in the mainstream. This is largely because, it is inadequate for many governments in developing countries to merely be signatories to principles and frameworks on a global perspective, without the will to put into practice what they might have appended their signatures to.
References
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Corbett ,C. (1998). Special Educational Needs in the Twentieth Century: A cultural analysis. London: Cassell.
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Friend, M. and Cook, L. (1996) Interactions. Collaboration skills for school professionals (second edition) White Plains, NY: Longman.
Fuchs,L., S. Fuchs, D. Hamlett, C.,L. Philip N.,B., and Karns, K.(1995), 'General Educators' Specialized Adaptation for Students with Learning Disabilities'. Exceptional Children 61(5) 440-459.
McGregor, G., and Vogelsberg, R.,T (1998) 'A Synthesis of Literature that informs Best Practice about Inclusive Schooling .Consortium on Inclusive Schooling Practices. The University of Montana-Rural institute on disabilities.
Ryndak D., L., Dowing, J.E., Morrison.A., P. and Williams L.,J.(1996) 'Parents' perceptions of educational settings and services for children with moderate or severe disabilities'. Remedial and Special Education, 17 (2), 106-118.
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Tilstone, C., and Rose, R. (press) 'Do special Schools Have a Role in Supporting the Process of Inclusion?' Tizard Learning Disability Review.
UNESCO (1994)'The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action', Paris: UNESCO
Wolery, M., Werts, M.,.G., Caldwell, N.K., Snyder., E. D., and Liskowski, L.(1995) 'Experienced teachers' Perceptions of Resources and Support for Inclusion'. Educational and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities 30(1) 1-26
The Department of Special Education, University College of Education, Winneba, Ghana, is acknowledged for the support of this project. The contributions of the following lecturers and research assistants are specifically recognized. Gadagbui, G., Ameku, F., Offie Nyadu and Anthony Mensah. The various roles played by all the student teachers on SAP, the Pupils on this project, Parents and regular teachers are also highly acknowledged.
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