Abstract
An embedded case-study was conducted in a Centre for disabled preschool children between the ages of 0 to 6 in lzmir, Turkey. The Centre provided various educational and support services for the parents through "Shared Educational Responsibility Approach". Therefore, one unit of the investigation focused on identifying parents' feelings and experiences about having a disabled child. The Approach aimed to increase parents' competence and frequency of experiencing positive feelings and inclusion while decreasing their negative feelings.
Interviews and the "Parents' Feelings Questionnaire" were used as data collection tools in the study. Comparison of the mothers' and the fathers' initial feelings about having a disabled child reveal fathers' as having experiencing positive feelings more frequently. In addition, small increases were observed in the positive feelings experienced by mothers during their involvement in the Programme. The interviews provide a rich variety of data about parents' feelings and experiences.
Regarding the data collected through the case-study services for parents were developed by the Centre towards empowering parents and supporting inclusive life in the society.
INTRODUCTION
Over the years, the field of early intervention has been engaged in evaluating the effects of family-life on children's development. An agreement seems to have been reached about the highly positive and irreplaceable role of parents and the continuously stimulating child-adult relationship that are necessary in nurturing children.
Certain factors such as illness, death, poverty, marriage problems and disability can all affect the development of such a positive relation between parents and children. Pregnancy, a period also named as 'expecting', coincides with the expectancy of a healthy baby. Therefore, the experience of having a disabled baby yields the parental loss of the imagined 'normal' child and the subsequent struggles to establish a new set of expectations, feelings and way of life (Weisner et al., 1991). Different writers have expressed the nature of parenting to become 'hardship' (McConachie, 1991), 'uncertain future' (Stallard and Dickinson, 1994), and frequently experienced feelings to be pain, shame, guilt, pity, anger, revulsion, disappointment, frustration and many more to come over the years (Akkök, 1994, Mittler, 1994; Sinason, 1993; Weisner et al., 1991).
Generally life style of many parents change after having a baby and the first years place higher demands on parents. In addition, the time, educational and daily care arrangement and financial requirements to take sufficient care of infants with special needs will exceed the demands on parents of ordinary children. Thus, the former group of parents will find a higher level of pressure to alter their life styles (Gath, 1993; McConachie, 1991, Schultz et al., 1992). According to research, mothers spend more time with their disabled children in comparison to both their spouses and mothers of 'ordinary' children (Havermans and Eiser, 1991; Sinason, 1993). Additionally, these mothers will still be expected to fulfil their previously existing responsibilities towards their other children, husband and extended family members.
Personal characteristics of parents and the individual family unit will also affect the nature and degree of emotional and social problems experienced. Beckman (1991), in a review of few studies on parents presents data on the higher frequency of stress experienced by fathers than mothers, yet less knowledge of the constructive reasons for their stress. Fathers were also reported to have more difficulty in handling anger towards the child. Higher level of self esteem, internal control and less requirement for support were identified in fathers. Whereas mothers experienced more difficulty in interpersonal satisfaction and self-esteem.
The everyday life of families becomes unique in relation to the individual needs of each child and the strategies developed by parents to meet them. Unfortunately, previous literature has presented a biased emphasis on the crisis and pathology parents experience after the birth of a child with special needs. Stressing the importance of searching for benefits in rearing such children will become a valuable resource both for fieldworkers and parents in the long run (Clayton et al., 1995).
AIMS
This study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of a private Centre's services on children with learning difficulties and their parents. Since the Centre serves for children and parents the study aimed to investigate the possible outcomes of the Approach on both groups. The investigation on parents was designed to answer several questions as follows:
SAMPLE
Information on the sample of parents varied in age, education, marital and economic status. Mothers were all under the age of 40 when they became pregnant for the children under study. Age of fathers fell in a wider range, in which the youngest father was 25 and the oldest father was 69.
Most parents in the sample were graduates of high school and university. All fathers were employed and working fulltime unlike their spouses who had become or already were housewives. Only 10 mothers from the sample were working in a fulltime job and were economically productive.
In some families parents' marital status had changed after the birth of a child with special needs. Most parents led a family life except for 3 couples who were legally divorced. One major aim of the study was to identify the possible problems and systems of support developed between husbands and wives after having a child with special needs. The research also focused on how effective the service was in supporting parents and family as a whole.
The major part of the data collection on parents involved mothers since they kept regular contacts with the Centre. Data was collected on 24 fathers and 32 mothers.
PROCEDURE
This investigation, was designed to observe and describe the outcomes of the Centre's Approach by evaluating the development, attitude, values and emotions of a group of children and parents in which the main purpose was to analyse intensively these subunits for developing insight on a single case (Cohen and Manion, 1989; Yin, 1994). Data on the parents was collected over a period of two and a half years. Methods of data collection were rating scales, questionnaires and interviews. Two separate sets of data were collected through the questionnaire and interviews (See Table 1).
Table 1. Summary of the Sample and Data Collection Techniques
| Sample | Data on | Sample size | Instrument | Time frame |
| Fathers | Feelings | 24 | Questionaire | end of research |
| Mothers | 1. Feelings 2. Life |
16 (n=16/32) 16 (n=16/32) 15 |
Questionnaire Questionnaire Interview |
Beginning and end of research End of research End of research |
The "Parent's Feelings Questionnaire" was developed by the researcher, specifically for this investigation and the tool was put into practice after its revision and piloting (See Appendix 1 & 2A, 2B). The questionnaire consisted of a written introductory opening, 46 feelings individually printed on cards and a rating scale for marking the degree of experiencing each feeling. The 46 cards of words consisted of a selection of 23 words on positive feelings and 23 of their antonyms expressing negative feelings such as 'aggressive', 'pleased', 'confident', 'insecure' and 'unimportant'. The parents were asked to rank each word from a choice of rarely, sometimes to often or skip the word if they did not agree with the feeling.
All mothers completed the questionnaire in a private room at the Centre after reading the introductory information about the questionnaire. Mothers were provided additional oral explanation about the questionnaire prior to completion. Ten fathers completed the "Parents' Feelings Questionnaire" at the Centre and unfortunately, due to the time constraints the remaining 14 fathers completed the questionnaire by post.
All fathers (n=24) were approached once, at the end of the investigation. Half of the mothers (n=16) completed the questionnaire both at the beginning (initial) and end (final) of the research. The minimum time span allowed between the two applications was 1 year of attendance to the Centre's activities. The other half of mothers (n=16) completed the questionnaire once, at the end of the investigation.
A second set of data was collected on mothers through interviews. A total of 12 mothers and 1 aunt who were primary carers of a child with learning difficulties accepted to be interviewed. 16 questions were specifically prepared for this interview and asked in the same order to all the subjects (See Appendix 3). The order of questions focused on identifying mother's past and present memories and experiences as well as their future expectations and worries. Each question was printed onto individual cards and numbered from 1 to 16. Throughout the interviews the school psychologist directed the questions in the written order and mothers were able to follow the order from their personal cards.
RESULTS
PART (1)
Regarding the data collected through the "Parents' Feelings Questionnaire" three sets of results were obtained.
Fathers' Feelings
Results reveal 50% and /or above number of fathers to experience the negative feelings aggressive (50%), hopeless (50%), embarrassed (54%), useless (50%), discomfort (50%), confused (58%) and negative (54%)- rarely. Similarly, the frequency of feeling confident (59%), useful (54%), assured (50%), calm (50%), important (58%), positive (71%), hopeful (58%), bold (62.5%), encouraged (62.5%), optimistic (66.6%), proud (54%) and strong (58%) has been marked as often by more than half of the fathers (n>50%). 50% and /or higher number of fathers have expressed that they sometimes feel delighted (54%), relaxed (50%), satisfied (50%), and angry (50%). One striking result is the pair of feelings from the 46 complementing feelings which over half of the fathers have marked. The negative feelings evaluated as being experienced rarely and the contrasting positive ones fathers often feel are as follows:
| Rarely | Often | |
| Aggressive (50%) | <> | Calm (50%) |
| Hopeless (50%) | <> | Hopeful (58%) |
| Embarrassed (54%) | <> | Proud (54%) |
| Useless (50%) | <> | Useful (54%) |
| Negative (54%) | <> | Positive (71%) |
From the total of 23 negative feelings higher percentage of fathers have marked 16 words as being experienced rarely. More fathers have expressed feeling nervous (46%), depressed (33%), angry (50%) and tense (46%) sometimes rather than rarely. The percentage of fathers often living through negative feelings is below 10% except for words: irritated (21%), nervous (17%), wounded (25%), depressed (25%) and tense (21%).
Mothers' Feelings
This section, on mothers' feelings after the birth of a child with special needs, will be presented in two parts.
(A) Initial Feelings of Mothers: A minimum of 50% of the mothers have expressed that they rarely feel useless (50%), sometimes feel aggressive (53%), relaxed (53%), nervous (50%), discomfort (50%), assured (50%), and often experience the feelings useful (66%), important (53%), bold (56%), encouraged (56%), supported (50%) and tense (50%). In comparison to the 23 feelings over half of the fathers selected, same ratio of mothers (n>50%) agreed upon fewer feelings - only 12 words. Replies are more dispersed in this group since higher percentage of mothers have marked 10 feelings as rarely, 21 feelings as sometimes and 14 as often felt. In addition, feeling 'pleased' has been selected by equal number of mothers and fathers.
Similar to the fathers, often feeling unimportant and humiliated have not been considered by any of the mothers. Unfortunately, four of the negative feelings: irritated (44%), nervous (37.5%), depressed (41%) and tense (50%) have been marked by more than one third of the mothers as being often experienced.
Some contradictory words such as shy (34.5%) and bold (56%) unimportant (47%) and important (53%) have been evaluated as rarely versus often experienced by higher percentage of mothers. Other pairs of words have been marked as sometimes felt for both the negative and positive feelings. All in all, results on mothers' feelings after the birth of a child with special needs is less striking than the results obtained from the fathers.
(B) Initial and Final Feelings of Mothers: Comparison of the initial and final feelings of mothers reveals complex results. Besides the educational guidance, emotional and social support the Centre provided there has been decrease in only some of the negative feelings experienced. Similarly, mothers' replies for experiencing positive feelings have increased very briefly and show decrease in frequency for about 50% of the words.
Comparison of the initial and final replies to the Questionnaire reveal equal number of mothers to often feel unimportant, embarrassed, aggressive, dubious, hopeless, nervous, pessimistic, negative and humiliated. Unfortunately, the number of resonses have increased between initial and final applications of the Questionnaire for often feeling insecure (by 13%), useless (by 6%), incompetent (by 6.5%), rejected (by 6%), discomfort (by 12%), lonely (by 12%), wounded (by 6%), unsatisfied (by 6%) and depressed (by 6%). The average increaes has been calculated by adding the specific increases and dividing by 9 - the number of words more mothers marked at final assessment. The average increase is 8%, therefore the increase in the number of mothers often feeling insecure, discomfort and lonely is above the average. In addition, there has been ~6% decrease in responses for often experiencing the words irritated, confused, shy, angry and tense.
Responses for sometimes feeling aggressive, irritated, unimportant, dubious, hopeless, embarrassed, nervous, discomfort, pessimistic, negative, unsatisfied, depressed, angry and tense have shown a considerable decrease. Especially, for the words embarrassed, discomfort, negative, unsatisfied, depressed, angry and tense the number of responses have decreased by 50% and above. Higher number of mothers have replied as sometimes feeling insecure, useless, rejected, confused, and humiliated at final completion of the Questionnaire. In both applications equal number of mothers have replied as sometimes experiencing the words incompetent, lonely, wounded and shy.
Reasons for applying the Questionnaire twice was to identify the possible increase in: (1) the negative feelings rarely felt and (2) the positive feelings often experienced after joining the Programme. Results reveal some increase in the number of mothers rarely feelings aggressive, irritated, nervous, unsatisfied, depressed, angry, humiliated and tense. Unfortunately, there has been a decrease in percentage of responses for rarely experiencing 10 of the negative feelings. The decrease is significantly high, above the average decrease of 15%, for the word useless (by 31.5%), incompetent (by 19%), lonely (by 18.5%) and wounded (by 25%). If this decrease is compared with the change in the numbers of mothers sometimes and often experiencing these feelings the results are promising to some extent. For example, besides the decrease by 25% in the number of mothers who responded as rarely feeling wounded the number of responses for sometimes feeling wounded stayed the same. In addition, the increase is only by 6% for the mothers often experiencing this feeling. The important question is "What happened to 19 % of the respondents?". Possibly, some of the respondents felt that they did not experience being wounded at final assessment and therefore did not mark the word.
Results on the change in frequency of positive feelings experienced by mothers is not as promising as expected. There has been a decrease in the number of mothers who often feel pleased (by 12.5%), delighted (by 19%), confident (by 25%), raised (by 31%), comfortable (by 6%), positive (by 13%), hopeful (by 6.5%), bold (by 6%), satisfied (by 6%), proud (by 19%) and supported (by 25%). The average decrease in the percentage of often experiencing positive feelings between the initial and final applications of the questionnaire is ~15%. Therefore, above average decrease is observed for often being delighted, confident, raised, proud and supported. There is an increase to some extent in 7 of the feelings- useful, assured, sociable, encouraged, competent and strong. The percentage of mothers often feeling useful has become 75% after the final assessment and this is the highest number obtained.
Replies for sometimes experiencing the listed positive feelings have declined between the initial and final application of the Parent's Feelings Questionnaire. The average decrease in responses is 17%, which implies fewer mothers, above the average, to sometimes feel relaxed (by 25%), assured (by 31%), calm (by 25%), sociable (by 18.5%), positive (by 19%), satisfied (by 19%), optimistic (by 19%) and competent (by 25%). Higher percentage of mothers have marked the words pleased, delighted, confident, raised, hopeful, bold, proud and supported at the final application of the Questionnaire. There is a significant increase in the number of mothers who sometimes feel delighted (by 19%) and supported (by 37.5%) in comparison to the results of their initial experiences.
Results on rarely experienced feelings is to some extent promising since mothers' replies have stayed the same for 10 of the positive feelings. Unfortunately, an equal number of other positive feelings have been marked by more mothers. The feelings being felt rarely by higher percentage of mothers are delighted, confident, comfortable, useful, important, sociable, reluctant, optimistic, competent and supported. Decrease is observe in the frequency of rarely being pleased, bold and proud.
Initially, the researcher expected a decrease in the percentage of the rarely experienced positive feelings and an increase in mothers' replies for sometimes and often feeling the selected words. Yet, the results reveal the expected to have been partially fulfilled. Although Parent's Feelings Questionnaire was designed to evaluate parents' feelings related to having a disabled child it is possible that parents' true feelings were not touched. In addition, parents may have not divulged all of their positive and negative feelings.
PART (2)
Interviews conducted with the participation of 12 mothers and 1 aunt portrayed a rich collage of shared ideas, feelings and experiences- all of which were directly related to 'becoming familiar' and 'living' with the issue of disability. Responses to the 15th question from the total of 16 questions on the interview list will be excluded from this presentation since this question was on the explanations of mothers' everyday routine. Explanations to this question do not imply specifically important data about their feelings, thought and expectations although reflecting upon their daily efforts (See Appendix 3).
Evaluation of the mothers' responses to the first question reveals similarities in their expectations of having a disabled child. Nine mothers expressed their positive expectations of having a normal baby and 4 mothers had worries about the possibility of disability.
Responses of the mothers regarding the second and third questions show 8 of the total of 13 mothers to be the first person to diagnose their babies' slow development. In 2 cases the hospital told the family and 3 children were identified by close family members. Therefore, family plays a major role in detecting children's problems and hospital acts as a source of information in revealing the truth in parents worries.
The fourth question about the mothers' feelings after hearing about the diagnosis was expressed as shock by 5 mothers, deep sadness by 4 mothers, severe depression by 5 mothers, and unacceptable by 3 mothers. Other feelings such as anger towards the doctor, self-injury, being under pressure, being unable to cry were also conveyed by mothers. Exceptionally, one mother expressed her relief and new hopes she had after hearing the diagnosis. This is due to the long years of struggle she had against her husband and family in trying to convince them about their child's limitations.
Questions number five and six and ten were interested in identifying mothers' approach in explaining the diagnosis to other family members and their reactions and relations with the mothers. Six mothers faced the denial of this situation by their husband and close family members. On the contrary, 6 family members portrayed cooperative, sympathetic and understanding attitudes. In one family anxiety was expressed, but neither denial nor acceptance experienced. Three mothers were blamed as the cause of the child's disability. Two mothers have told about sibling jealousy and 1 mother complained about her older children who treated the young disabled child as if everything was normal. Five mothers explained the superficial, distant, less sincere and supportive relationship they have moved into with their close family members after the birth of their child. Equal number of families have moved closer as a result of this incidence.
Interviewees responses to the seventh and eighth questions about the organisations contacted and the attitudes experienced reveal a variety in terms of organisations. On the contrary, all mothers have mentioned the lack of caring and understanding attitude of specialists towards families in need. Some mothers have expressed their satisfaction with the understanding attitude of the Centre and the support provided towards forming positive staff-parent and parent-parent relations.
Regarding the changes that took place in mothers' lives in the ninth question all interviewees spoke about the restrictions a disabled child brought into their social life and spare time. One mother has expressed feeling stress and another mother told about being isolated. Six mothers were able to identify positive occurrences related to having such a child. Three of them told about the positive impact of disability on all family members - drawing them closer and making them more supportive. One mother told that she had learned the actual value of having a child and the meaning of love and health after her child's birth.
The eleventh question was presented to determine the emotional and physical changes which took place with interviewees spouses. Ten spouses (77%) were described s supportive and understanding by their wives. Some mothers have mentioned the arguments, discomfort and distant physical life they experienced during the first years of their child's life. Two mothers were divorcees and believed that their child's condition was a secondary cause of this incidence.
Questions twelve and thirteen were about mothers' concerns about their children's development and their coping strategies at times of pessimism. As expected, all mothers' major worry is about the future of their child - basically, what will happen to their child after their death. Mothers have different ways of tackling problematic and stressful moments. Some prefer to get discharged from these feelings through talking to friends and family members whereas others relax by: going to cinema, window shopping, taking care of flowers, praying, reading the Holy books and philosophical writings, talking to ones' self and crying occasionally. One mother was taking medication in order to relax and one chose to quarrel with her husband at times she was extremely tense.
Mothers responses to question number fourteen was about what they felt most hopeful about in their child' development. Brief optimism was expressed by many mothers and four were unable to find hopeful ideas related to their child. Many mothers learned to celebrate the tiniest steps their disabled children took towards development and kept hoping for future achievements to come even though very slowly.
The last question was about the messages mothers would like to convey to other parents with a child with special needs. Mothers' advice to other families in a similar situation is generally based on having patience and love towards their children. They see the importance of accepting their child's disability prior to meeting the needs of the child. Also, the importance of starting education as early as possible is told by many mothers. Mothers advice other families to attend social events as much as possible and to boldly introduce their child to the society.
The hands on experience conveyed to the reader in this section can be summarised by Sinason's (1993) words: Parents vary in whether they deal with a child's talent or difficulties by taking it for granted or by strenuous action. Their own unique personalities help to determine their style of parenting. (p. 74)
DISCUSSION
This study aimed to identify parents` feelings and experiences about having a disabled child. Interrelated results were obtained from the 'Parents' Feelings Questionnaire' and interviews with 13 mothers. The study focused on changing the already existing 'problem-centred relation' between parents and professionals and empower parents to realise and use their potential in teaching their children (Jowett et al., 1991).
Parents' Feelings Questionnaire was used in obtaining three sets of data on parents' emotions. Evaluation of the percentage of responses for 4 scale ranks on each feeling reveals 16 negative words and an equal number of positive words to have been ranked by more fathers as rarely experienced for the former and often felt for the latter. Mothers' responses who completed the Questionnaire once, at the end of the research, are less clear in comparison to fathers since mothers have sometimes expressed feeling 'aggressive', 'discomfort' and 'assured'. Initial and final feelings of mothers are even more complex since the expected increase in positive feelings was not observed by the end of the Programme. There is a brief decrease in the negative feelings and only a similar increase in their antonyms. Overall evaluation of the three separate sets of data obtained from the Parents' Feelings Questionnaire reveal one common feeling to have been experienced by above average number of parents. 53% of the fathers, 66% of mothers who completed the Questionnaire once, and 75% of mothers who did it twice ranked often feeling 'useful'.
Similarly, interview results reveal parents' endless efforts in taking care of their disabled child, thus portraying the numerous activities parents are conducting in guiding their children towards success. In the interviews mothers have often talked about their pessimistic days, but promisingly they all have found means of comforting themselves and tackling problems to the possible extent. Many mothers expressed the positive and caring relationship they had developed with their spouse and some see the intensified supportive family relations to have developed as a result of their disabled child. Other mothers have experienced blame from their family and society in the past, but the section on suggestions to other families reveals mothers' strength in overcoming this attitude. Many mothers advised others to accept the condition as soon as possible and to never be ashamed of their children in order to lead an active social life.
The initial services of the Centre for parents were: (1) Parents' Opportunity Group, (2) book and toy library, (3) Workshop for Training and Informing Parents, (4) trips, (5) exhibitions, (6) circulation of educational materials. Since the beginning of the research project the Centre took new initiatives in order to enrich the existing Education Programme and additional activities. Parents' Support Group was formed regarding parents' wish to meet each other once a month to share their problems, worries and experiences with each other. Social events such as weekend trips, family dinners and end of year performances were conducted for the children and their families. A monthly calendar showing the Centre's activities and each child's monthly education programme was circulated. At present, it is among the plans of the Centre to conduct frequent Workshops for training and informing parents rather than the yearly Workshops conducted in the previous years. Recently, the Centre also initiated a 'Toy Preparation Group' in which mothers work together on making a toy for their children and the Centre according to the themes covered in the education programme.
This paper will conclude with the remarks of three mothers who made valuable contributions to the research project by completing the Questionnaire and attending the interview.
I used to think that it would be the end of the world to have a child like mine. But if I have to speak for myself I do not think it is bad at all to be a mother of such a child. One gets the chance to live each and every moment of motherhood with such a child. ( Mother G)
I had even thought of dying when my child was born, but life is too beautiful. It is also very beautiful to raise such a child. S/he is your success, trophy, present, and every single step s/he takes in life is the product of your efforts. (Mother H)
I believe that our children are like a delicate and unique flower. They will blossom as long as we keep feeding them with soil, provide sufficient sun light and water them regularly. This care will result with a beautiful flower which will become our present. As long as we provide love, care and protection our children will lead a happy life. (Mother A)
APPENDIX 1
PARENT'S FEELINGS QUESTIONNAIRE INTRODUCTORY LETTER
Dear Parent,
This questionnaire is prepared to help us and yourself analyse your present feelings about having a child with special needs. Please read each of the words listed below carefully. It is very important that you spend time on every word and weigh your own feelings best, with a þ sign at the space provided under each word. There are 46 words on this scale and each page will be numbered from 1 to 46. Please be careful and try no to skip any pages. Thank You For Your Cooperation!
APPENDIX 2
A PARENT'S FEELINGS QUESTIONNAIRE
USEFULL
________________________________________________________________________16
CONFUSED
________________________________________________________________________22
RAISED
_________________________________________________________________________9
USEFUL
________________________________________________________________________12
APPENDIX 2B
PARENT'S FEELINGS QUESTIONNAIRE EVALUATION FORM
1. _____ Rarely _____ Sometimes _____Often
2. _____ Rarely _____ Sometimes _____Often
3. _____ Rarely _____ Sometimes _____Often
4. _____ Rarely _____ Sometimes _____Often
5 . _____ Rarely _____ Sometimes _____Often
6. _____ Rarely _____ Sometimes _____Often
7. _____ Rarely _____ Sometimes _____Often
8. _____ Rarely _____ Sometimes _____Often
9. _____ Rarely _____ Sometimes _____Often
10. _____ Rarely _____ Sometimes _____Often
11. _____ Rarely _____ Sometimes _____Often
12. _____ Rarely _____ Sometimes _____Often
SAMPLE
APPENDIX 3 INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Dear Parent,
We have prepared a new project. We have been circulating translations of life stories on individuals and families with special needs. Our aim was to convey the message that you are not alone and there are other families with similar problems. We believe that each family attending our Centre is equally unique and has valuable life stories that will help us learn more about the life of children and families with special needs. We wish to share your life stories with other families by collecting the answers you give to the following questions. The names of parents, children, siblings and others will not be divulged. We thank you for all your help and co-operation !!!
REFERENCES
Akkök, F. (1994) 'An overview of parent training and counselling with the parents of children with mental disabilities and autism in Turkey', International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 17, 129-138.
Beckman, P. J. (1991) 'Comparison of mothers' and fathers' perceptions of the effect of young children with and without disabilities', American Journal on Mental Retardation, 95, 5, 585-595.
Cohen, L. and Mannion, L. (1989) Research Methods in Education, London: Routledge.
Clayton, J. M. , Glidden, L. M. And Kiphart, M. J. (1995) 'The questionnaires on resources ans stress: What do they measure?' American Association on Mental Retardation, 99, 3, 313-315.
Gath, A. (1993) 'Book Review: Stoneman. Z. And Berman, W. P. (eds), The effects of mental retardation, disability and illness on sibling relationships-research issues ans challenges Baltimore: Brookes', American Journal on Mental Retardation, 99, 4, 446-448.
Havermans, T. And Eiser, C. (1991) 'Mothers' perceptions of parenting a child with spina bifida', Child: Care, Health and Development, 17, 259-273.
Jowett, S. , Baginsky, M. , and MacDonald MacNeil, M. (1991) Building Bridges, Windsor: NFER-NELSON.
McConachie, H. (1991) 'Home-based teaching: What are we asking of parents?', Child: Care Health and Development, 17, 123-136.
Mittler, H. (1994) 'International initiatives in support of families with a member with learning disabilities', in P. Mittler and H. Mittler (eds) Innovations in Family Support for People with Learning Disabilities, Lancashire: Brothers of Charity, Lisieux Hall.
Schultz, C. L. , Kemm, M. A. And Bruce, E. J. (1992) 'Caring for fathers and mothers of children with intellectual disability: A pilot study', Australian and New Zealand Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 18, 1, 45-56.
Sinason, V. (1993) Understanding Your Handicapped Child, London: Rosendale Press.
Stallard, P. And Dickinson, F. (1994) 'Groups for parents of pre-school children with severe disabilities', Child: Care, Health and Development, 20, 197-207.
Weisner, T. S. , Beizer, L. and Stolze, L. (1991) Religion and families of children with developmental delays', American Journal of Mental Retardation, 95, 6, 647-662.
Yin, R. K. (1994) Case Study Research Design and Methods, London: Sage Publications Ltd.
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