Contributions from: Johnnie Hay
Abstract
South Africa experienced colonialism and apartheid for 342 years before democracy finally dawned for all people in 1994. For the largest part of the three-and -a-half centuries, a majority of South Africans experienced exclusion in the political, economical and educational arenas.
The hypothesis on which the research is based, is thus the following: the move towards inclusive education will be embraced by the majority of South African teachers because of the past that was characterised by exclusion on all levels. Therefore positive steps towards the implementation thereof would already have started in the classrooms around the country.
The investigation took place in various regions in Southern Africa. A small, though representative cross-section of the teacher population as well as a representative sample of Further Diploma in Education (Special Education Needs) students of Vista, completed a questionnaire.
On the whole results do not confirm the research hypothesis. A detailed analysis of the reasons for this is subsequently attempted.
Introduction
The world-wide trend away from the clinical or medical perspectives in special education to a social and ecological perspective has also been embraced in South Africa. The philosophical changes implied in this shift accentuates the inherent rights of all persons to participate meaningfully in society (Du Toit 1996 : 7, Hay and Hay 1997:10, Davies and Green1998:97). This shift has however occurred in a period of the South African history that has been characterised by massive changes in the political, economical and educational arenas. Although Kallaway (as quoted by Csapo 1996) in 1990 called for "sweeping agendas and radical transformation" as prerequisite to construct a free, compulsory, unitary, non-racial education system, the impact of the comprehensive social reconstruction has shaken our emerging democratic society. In general people are referring to their emotional reaction to all these changes as "trans-formation trauma".
Context
In 1994 the first democratic election was held which theoretically hailed the emergence of an equal, discrimination-free society. A society founded on "human dignity, the achievement of equality and the advancement of human rights and freedoms" (Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. Section 1(a)).
This came after 342 years of colonialism and apartheid - a period of exclusion, division and discrimination on various grounds. Although the segregation / integration polarity has always characterised the South African society in the various fields of human endeavour, divisions between races became rigid and nearly impenetrable in the period following the assumption of power of the National Party in 1948. The core of their policy was social and political separateness (apartheid) for the White, Indian, Coloured, and Black population groups (Behr 1988:13-15).This resulted in a society where divisions between races were enforced by law in every conceivable sphere of life; people were limited in their choices regarding where they could live, go to church, buy property, go to school, etc. A vast disparity developed between the general resources available to the different race groups. This aspect will later be discussed specifically regarding funding and provision of education and special education.
For the purpose of this paper two perspectives on the phenomenal developing changes will be highlighted, viz: the transition from division / segregation of races in the school system, and the evolution of the conceptualising of special education needs from the medical or intrinsic deficit model to the ecological model.
Segregated to integrated school system.
One could argue that enforced educational segregation (that was legalised in the Bantu Education Act 1953) had (has) an incalculably negative effect on the majority of South Africans. These divisions intensified during the period of National Party rule (1948-1994) and in the educational sphere culminated in a complex arrangement of 17 different education departments which were divided across racial and ethnic lines, running parallel to one another (Behr 1988:59-81, Donald 1996:17, Discussion document on a National Training Strategy Initiative 1994: 39-106). The period of "apartheid education" resulted in drop-outs, push-outs, unschooled, illiterate, unskilled youth as well as a large adult population who never or barely experienced formal education (Csapo 1996:25, Department of Education 1999: 1-8).
The restructured education system has brought the collapse of the different depart-ments of education into one integrated Department of Education, and 9 provincial de-partments of education which strive towards building a "just, equitable, and high quality system for all citizens, with a common culture of disciplined commitment to learning and teaching" (Government Gazette No16312, 1995).
Provision for Special Education Needs in a segregated school system.
The white, coloured and Indian groups were reasonably well provided regarding specialised education services (Donald 1996:72) However in the system that did not even provide for free and compulsory education for Africans the provision for special education needs for African learners was practically non-existent (Kriegler and Farman, 1996:41). Du Toit (1996:12,13) highlights inter alia the following characteristics of special education towards the end of the apartheid era:
The inadequate provision for special needs education resulted in "mainstreaming by default" for a large proportion of the population (Donald 1993). The underqualified teachers, immense financial restrictions and rigid curriculum contributed to the woes of most learners and especially those with special education needs whether through mainstream or specialised facilities.
In addition to the relatively small number of learners with special education needs clearly related to intrinsic causes (blindness, deafness, epilepsy etc) it is recognised that a much larger proportion of learners have special needs due to extrinsic factors. Van den Berg and Naicker (1996 : 21-30) quote the 1992 NEPI-report that estimated that a staggering 40% of South Africa's school population fell into that category at the time.
Due to the past unequal (along racial lines) provision for special education needs, the most vulnerable groups of learners, those with special education needs were, and are still, marginalised to the extreme, especially in disadvantaged and rural areas (Department of Education 1999:4). Legislation since 1996 provide a basis for the establishment of an inclusive education and training system, however according to the Department of Education even more radical reform is essential; all existing policies and legislation regarding education and training should yet again be reviewed to make adequate provision for the inclusion of those with special education needs (1999:12).
At this point in time the importance of education for learners with special education needs has indeed been recognised and features prominently in the South African education discourse. The impetus for this change has certainly, among other factors, been the focus on human rights in the Constitution and the recognition that social, economic, political, and cultural factors contributed to a large portion of the South African population not receiving adequate education and training.
Changing paradigm : Exclusion to Inclusion
Nearly a decade ago Donald (1993:142,143) argued that special education needs should feature within the mainstream of education reconstruction. The reason being that in the South African context special education needs can by no means mostly be attributed to intrinsic disabilities. Due to the social and educational system of the South African society many special education needs are the result of extrinsic factors. These different perspectives on special education needs will now be discussed.
A cursory overview of the vocabulary employed in some of the official documents dealing with the plight of learners with special education needs, provides an interesting demonstration of the development of the understanding of special education needs in South Africa. In 1928 the Vocational and Special Schools Act was passed empowering the Minister to establish special schools for children who could not benefit from education as a result of physical and mental defects of abnormalities. In 1945 a com-prehensive investigation was done on deviate children. The Education Act of 1967 made provision for handicapped children with sensory, neurological or other impair-ments (Behr 1988 : 122-128). The main focus being special needs caused by intrinsic factors.
Indications of a changed and broader perspective on special education needs can be found in 1981 when the De Lange report pointed out that "there were environmentally handicapped children who, because of socio-economic and sub-cultural conditions are not exposed to experiences necessary for successful learning and progress at school (Behr 1988 :136).
The Government Gazette (No. 16312, 1995 :28) paved the way for a more holistic and integrated approach to Education Support services, and commissioned the work of the National Commission on Special Needs in Education, whose report acknowledges there exists a dynamic relationship between the learner, the centre of learning, the broader education system and the social, political and economic context of the learner (Department of Education 1997 :11). This represents a major shift toward the ecological perspective on special education needs, which encompasses both intrinsic and extrinsic factors that result in special education needs.
This recognition that special education needs should be seen from a ecological per-spective, has been a pervasive force in transforming legislation and the development of policy (Government Gazette No.116312, 1995, Department of Education, 1999).
The role of teachers in making inclusion possible
The training of teachers to implement inclusive education is crucial. Educators need to be equipped with skills to confront issues of inclusive teaching and to accommodate diversity in education (Department of Education 1998:98,99; Donald 1996:82; Govern-ment Gazette No 20844, 2000:15, Department of Education, 1999:15).
It is difficult to argue that the political will to change the system does not exist. Changed policies create changed parameters, however to change systems and the people within these systems is an extremely complex task. It is thus clear that South Africa has not just had to grapple with the trend towards inclusion; inclusion has been only one of the transformations within the transformation and restructuring of the whole education sys-tem, within a rapidly transforming society. But the enthusiasm with which South Africans have striven to a just and equal society might be viewed as an indication of the keen-ness with which teachers will embrace inclusive education.
Research Problem
Teachers will play a pivotal role in the implementation and success of Inclusive Education in South Africa. In The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Education Needs Education (1994:9) the role of the teacher (among others) in creating successful inclusive schools is recognised. However one of the weaknesses in teacher education identified in the Norms and Standards for Educators (September 1998) is inadequate training in overcoming barriers to learning.
The need for the in-service training of teachers in the area of special education needs, was identified by Vista University during 1997. The Faculty of Education developed a Further Diploma in Education ( Special Education Needs) which was implemented in 1999.
As has been discussed, the majority of teachers in South Africa have been victims of (political, economical, and other types of) exclusion due to the previous political dispensation. They have also always had to deal with special education needs due to the dearth of special schools for African learners and the resulting inclusion "by default" (Donald, 1993) The researchers therefore believe that in spite of inadequate training, teachers will embrace inclusion. This is confirmed by research done in the Western Cape that found positive teacher attitudes toward inclusion in a group of primary school teachers (Davis and Green, 1998:100).
The researchers were interested to ascertain the quality of teachers' attitudes towards inclusion, given that some educators argue that schools are "experiencing severe policy 'overload' and even confusion" (Department of Education, 1999:10). Have teachers been able to adjust to all the changes in the South African society and particularly to the changes in the educational policy regarding inclusive education? The research problems that were posed were thus:
Investigation
This investigation was done in South Africa during the early part of 2000 and involved all students enrolled for the Further Diploma in Education (Special Educational Needs) (hereafter called FDE (SEN)) at Vista University, as well as a sample of teachers in the Southern Gauteng region not studying the mentioned FDE at Vista University.
Vista University has an enrolment of 92 FDE (SEN) students for 2000. The attached questionnaire was sent to all students, and 32 were returned. The response rate was thus 35%. These 32 were of good use as nearly all questions had been answered. Subsequently the questionnaire was also distributed to 40 secondary school teachers attending a training session of the Southern Gauteng region. More than half of these questionnaires were not usable, as either some pages were not completed, or some aspects completed in a pattern-like style. The tendency seems to be that those res-pondents who indicated at question 6 that they haven't heard of inclusive education, did not complete the questionnaire. It was therefore decided by the researchers not to interpret the 40 questionnaires completed by the secondary school teachers.
Of the 32 respondents eventually included in this research, 21 attended contact tuition on the Bloemfontein and Sebokeng Campuses of Vista University. The remaining 11 respondents were following the FDE (SEN) via distance tuition of the Vista University Distance Education Campus, situated in Pretoria.
Results
The results will be presented per question of the questionnaire and thereafter interpreted.
QUESTION 1 : Please indicate whether you are busy with the first or second year of study for the FDE (SEN):
QUESTION 2 : Please indicate your work setting :
This is an indication that a large percentage of the students are still operating in specialized settings - in this sample nearly 41%. From the university's side (as well as the country as a whole) one would prefer that the percentage of students teaching in regular schools should increase dramatically.
QUESTION 3 : Please indicate the number of years you have taught in a school (as well as the kind of school :
In terms of the needs of the country the average number of years of experience is rather high. One would prefer that educators realize the need for special needs skills earlier in their career.
A good sign, on the other hand, is that a substantial percentage (22%) of the students have both regular and special education exposure.
QUESTION 4 : Please indicate under which town/magisterial district the school/ institution where you work, resorts :
The majority of the students are from the Free State, with small numbers in the other provinces of South Africa. This may be an indication that the new policy of inclusive education has had the best coverage in the Free State up to date?
QUESTION 5 : Please indicate the education phase you predominantly work in :
The fact that the majority of students are working in the foundation phase, is encouraging, as special educational needs need to be identified and remedied as early as possible.
QUESTION 6 : Have you previously (i e before your FDE studies) heard of the following: inclusive education, mainstreaming, whole school approach?
Inclusive education and even mainstreaming seems to be quite a novel term to most of these students, whereas whole school approach is just about completely new to most. 22 respondents managed to give a satisfactory explanation of inclusive education, which indicates that most have a good grasp on the concept. This can, however, not be said of mainstreaming and whole school approach, where the understanding is overwhelmingly lacking.
QUESTION 7 : Do you have experience in teaching one or more of the following "categories" of exceptional children?
QUESTION 8 : What, according to your understanding, are the reasons for implementing inclusive education?
These suggested reasons predominantly demonstrate good insight into the real reasons for implementing inclusive education. However, some responses do not show adequate insight, e.g. "The government cannot accept it"
QUESTION 9 : What training (excluding the FDE (SEN)) have you had up to date to equip you for inclusive education? Please specify.
It is clear that only 5 out of the 32 respondents (16%) had some training that could be directly relevant to inclusive education. This represents a very small percentage who had been empowered through in-service training.
QUESTION 10 : Rank your attitude towards inclusive education on the following scale:
* Inclusive education will ensure that all the exclusionary practices of the past are eradicated
Average = 1,87 - indicating that most respondents agree fully or tend to agree. 19 respondents agree fully and only 3 disagreed fully.
* Inclusive education is the best way forward for learners with special educational needs
Average = 1,77 - indicating that most respondents agree fully or tend to agree. 19 agreed fully, whist only 2 disagreed fully.
* Inclusive education ensures optimal development of all learners
Average = 1,67 - indicating that most respondents agreed fully or tend to agree. 20 agree fully and only 1 disagreed fully.
* South Africa's history of exclusivity (where certain groups were excluded from activities) contributed to the inclusive education policies
Average = 2,03 - indicating that most respondents tended to agree. 15 agreed fully whereas 3 disagreed fully.
* Inclusive education will hamper the academic progress of learners with special educational needs
Average = 3,5 - indicating that most respondents tended to disagree. 11 disagreed fully whilst 2 agreed fully
* I have already started to implement inclusive education in my class
Average = 2,79 - indicating that respondents were neutral. 9 agreed fully whereas 7 disagreed fully.
* Inclusive education will have a negative effect on the academic progress of normal learners
Average = 3,68 indicative of neutral to tended to disagree stance. 1 agreed fully and 10 disagreed fully.
* Inclusive education will enhance the academic progress of normal learners
Average = 3,03 - indicating a neutral stance. 5 agreed fully and 7 disagreed fully.
These responses indicate that FDE (SEN) students have indeed moved their paradigms. Most agree that inclusive education is the best way forward and will ensure optimal development. What the respondents are not very clear about, is whether inclusion will be the best on the academic terrain for LSEN and non-LSEN. There were also division when asked about whether inclusion has been implemented in your class or not.
QUESTION 11 : Please describe the nature and frequency of support you receive to assist learners with special needs in your class.
This is perhaps a fair reflection of actual support rendered in the country. More than half of respondents receive either none or inadequate support.
QUESTION 12 : Please indicate whether you have referred children to Special Needs personnel during the course of this and last year.
This is somewhat disturbing, as 69% did not refer learners. In another sense it may be a reflection of reality in South Africa, namely that it is too cumbersome to obtain support, and therefore the teachers handle problems alone?
QUESTION 13 : Have you taken any steps to accommodate learners with special educational needs in your classroom?
15 indicated that they have implemented some elements of accommodating LSEN 4 indicated NO 7 indicated they are already teaching in a special setting 1 indicated that farm schools are seriously neglected - no response from ESS
This is positive, as nearly 50% have already tried to apply some principles of inclusion. What does concern somewhat, is that some of the teachers in specialized settings do not deem it necessary to apply inclusive principles, as they are in special schools?
Interpretation of results
The hypothesis on which this research was based, was the following:
The move towards inclusive education will be embraced by a majority of South African teachers because of the past that was characterised by exclusion on all levels. Therefore positive steps towards the implementation thereof would have already started in classrooms around the country.
From the questionnaires completed by FDE (SEN) students as well as teachers not studying in this field, the mentioned hypothesis is only partially confirmed. The teachers studying in this field have definitely made the paradigm shift towards inclusive educa-tion (see the responses on questions 8 and 10). It could be stated that these teachers have embraced the new concept of inclusive education, though with some reservations about the academic advantages for all students (question 10).
The teachers that are not studying (or involved) in this field have apparently not embraced inclusive education. This is gathered from the fact that the overwhelming majority of those respondents did either not know what inclusive education entail, or did not bother to indicate how their attitude towards inclusion is.
The second part of the hypothesis deals with practical implementation in class. Of those studying in the field, nearly 50% had taken steps to implement elements of inclusive education. Of those not involved in studies in this field, just about no indication could be gathered of steps to implement inclusive education.
Our initial hypothesis is thus only partly confirmed - inclusive education is embraced by those involved in the special education field (which constitutes a small percentage of the 350 000 educators in South Africa), but surely not by the majority of regular educators not directly involved in special education. Steps to implement inclusive education have also been taken by a small minority.
Conclusion
It appears from this investigation that policy makers and education managers can not take it for granted that inclusive education will be embraced by the regular classroom teachers of South Africa. Those educators studying in the special needs field have apparently made the paradigm shift towards inclusion, but the same can not be said of regular teachers, probably because of change overload caused by transformation of society in general and education in particular.
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